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THE DISCOURSE ON RIGHT VIEW
The Sammaditthi Sutta
and its Commentary
Translated from the Pali by
Bhikkhu Nanamoli
Edited and Revised by
Bhikkhu Bodhi
The Wheel Publication No. 377/379
ISBN 955-24-0079-1
Published in 1991
BUDDHIST PUBLICATION SOCIETY
KANDY SRI LANKA
Copyright 1991 Buddhist Publication Society
* * *
DharmaNet Edition 1994
This electronic edition is offered for free distribution
via DharmaNet by arrangement with the publisher.
DharmaNet International
P.O. Box 4951, Berkeley CA 94704-4951
* * * * * * * *
THE TRANSLATOR
Bhikkhu Nanamoli was born in England in 1905 and graduated from Exeter
College, Oxford. In 1948 he came to Sri Lanka, where he was ordained
the following year at the Island Hermitage near Dodanduwa. During his
11 years in the Sangha Ven. Nanamoli translated into lucid English
some of the most difficult texts of Theravada Buddhism. In 1960, on
one of his rare outings from the Hermitage, he suddenly passed away
due to heart failure.
THE EDITOR
Bhikkhu Bodhi is a Buddhist monk of American nationality, born in New
York City in 1944. After completing a doctorate in philosophy at
Claremont Graduate School, he came to Sri Lanka in 1972, and was
ordained the same year under the eminent scholar-monk, Ven. Balangoda
Ananda Maitreya. Since 1984 he has been Editor for the Buddhist
Publication Society, and its President since 1988.
* * * * * * * *
Bhikkhus, just as the dawn is the forerunner and first
indication of the rising of the sun, so is right view the
forerunner and first indication of wholesome states.
For one of right view, bhikkhus, right intention springs up.
For one of right intention, right speech springs up. For one of
right speech, right action springs up. For one of right action,
right livelihood springs up. For one of right livelihood, right
effort springs up. For one of right effort, right mindfulness
springs up. For one of right mindfulness, right concentration
springs up. For one of right concentration, right knowledge
springs up. For one of right knowledge, right deliverance
springs up.
Anguttara Nikaya 10:121
* * * * * * * *
INTRODUCTION
The Sammaditthi Sutta, the Discourse on Right View, is the ninth sutta
of the Majjhima Nikaya, the Collection of Middle Length Discourses.
Its expositor is the Venerable Sariputta Thera, the Buddha's chief
disciple and the foremost of the Master's bhikkhu disciples in the
exercise of the faculty of wisdom. The Buddha declared that next to
himself, it was the Venerable Sariputta who excelled in turning the
incomparable Wheel of the Dhamma, in expounding in depth and in detail
the Four Noble Truths realized with the attainment of enlightenment.
In the Sammaditthi Sutta the great disciple bears ample testimony to
the Buddha's words of praise, bequeathing upon us a discourse that has
served as a primer of Buddhist doctrine for generations of monks in
the monasteries of South and Southeast Asia.
As its title suggests, the subject of the Sammaditthi Sutta is
right view. The analysis of right view undertaken in the sutta brings
us to the very core of the Dhamma, since right view constitutes the
correct understanding of the central teachings of the Buddha, the
teachings which confer upon the Buddha's doctrine its own unique and
distinctive stamp. Though the practice of right mindfulness has
rightly been extolled as the crest jewel of the Buddha's teaching, it
cannot be stressed strongly enough that the practice of mindfulness,
or any other approach to meditation, only becomes an effective
instrument of liberation to the extent that it is founded upon and
guided by right view. Hence, to confirm the importance of right view,
the Buddha places it at the very beginning of the Noble Eightfold
Path. Elsewhere in the Suttas the Buddha calls right view the
forerunner of the path (//pubbangama//), which gives direction and
efficacy to the other seven path factors.
Right view, as explained in the commentary to the Sammaditthi
Sutta, has a variety of aspects, but it might best be considered as
twofold: conceptual right view, which is the intellectual grasp of the
principles enunciated in the Buddha's teaching, and experiential right
view, which is the wisdom that arises by direct penetration of the
teaching. Conceptual right view, also called the right view in
conformity with the truths (//saccanulomika-sammaditthi//), is a
correct conceptual understanding of the Dhamma arrived at by study of
the Buddha's teachings and deep examination of their meaning. Such
understanding, though conceptual rather than experiential, is not dry
and sterile. When rooted in faith in the Triple Gem and driven by a
keen aspiration to realize the truth embedded in the formulated
principles of the Dhamma, it serves as a critical phase in the
development of wisdom (//panna//), for it provides the germ out of
which experiential right view gradually evolves.
Experiential right view is the penetration of the truth of the
teaching in one's own immediate experience. Thus it is also called
right view that penetrates the truths
(//saccapativedha-sammaditthi//). This type of right view is aroused
by the practice of insight meditation guided by a correct conceptual
understanding of the Dhamma. To arrive at direct penetration, one must
begin with a correct conceptual grasp of the teaching and transform
that grasp from intellectual comprehension to direct perception by
cultivating the threefold training in morality, concentration and
wisdom. If conceptual right view van be compared to a hand, a hand
that grasps the truth by way of concepts, then experiential right view
can be compared to an eye -- the eye of wisdom that sees directly into
the true nature of existence ordinarily hidden from us by our greed,
aversion and delusion.
The Discourse on Right View is intended to elucidate the principles
that are to be comprehended by conceptual right view and penetrated by
experiential right view. The Venerable Sariputta expounds these
principles under sixteen headings: the wholesome and the unwholesome,
the four nutriments of life, the Four Noble Truths, the twelve factors
of dependent arising, and the taints as the condition for ignorance.
It will be noted that from the second section to the end of the sutta,
all the expositions are framed in accordance with the same structure,
which reveals the principle of conditionality as the scaffolding for
the entire teaching. Each phenomenon to be comprehended by right view
is expounded in terms of its individual nature, its arising, its
cessation, and the way leading to its cessation. The grasp of this
principle thus makes it clear that any entity taken for examination is
not an isolated occurrence with its being locked up in itself, but
part of a web of conditionally arisen processes that can be terminated
by understanding and eliminating the cause that gives it being.
The right view arrived at by penetrating any of the sixteen
subjects expounded in the sutta is discussed in terms of two aspects,
both aspects of supramundane penetration. The first is the initial
penetration of the supramundane path that transforms a person from a
worldling (//puthujjana//) into a stream-enterer (//sotapanna//), a
noble disciple who has entered irreversibly upon the stream to
liberation. This aspect of right view is indicated by the words that
open each section, "(one) who has perfect confidence in the Dhamma and
has arrived at this true Dhamma." These qualities are attributes only
of the stream-enterer and those of higher attainment along the path.
The description thus applies to the trainee (//sekha//), the disciple
who has entered the path but has not yet reached its end. The words
signify right view as a transformative vision which has revealed the
ultimate truths underlying our existence, but which must still be
developed further to complete the full transformation it is capable of
effecting.
The second aspect of supramundane right view is indicated by the
closing words of each section, from "he entirely abandons the
underlying tendency to lust" to "he here and now makes an end of
suffering." This description is fully applicable only to the Arahant,
the liberated one, and thus indicates that the right view conceptually
grasped by the wise worldling, and transformed into direct perception
with the attainment of stream-entry, reaches its consummation with the
arrival at the teaching's final goal, the attainment of complete
emancipation from suffering.
* * *
The translation of the Sammaditthi Sutta and its commentary
presented here has been adapted from manuscripts left behind by
Bhikkhu Nanamoli. The translation of the sutta has been adapted from
Ven. Nanamoli's complete translation of the Majjhima Nikaya. The
version used has been taken from the edition of the complete Majjhima
Nikaya translation that I prepared for publication by Wisdom
Publications in the United States. This version, tentatively scheduled
for release in late 1992, employs extensive substitution of Ven.
Nanamoli's own technical terminology with my own preferred renderings
of Pali doctrinal terms.
The commentary to the Sammaditthi Sutta is from the Papancasudani,
Acariya Buddhaghosa's complete commentary (//atthakatha//) to the
Majjhima Nikaya. The translation of the commentary has also been
adapted from a rendering by Ven. Nanamoli, contained in a notebook of
his that was discovered only a few years ago at Island Hermitage. The
terminology used in the notebook version suggests that it was one of
Ven. Nanamoli's earliest attempts at translation from the Pali; it
certainly preceded his translation of the Visuddhimagga, The Path of
Purification, first completed at the end of 1953. In adapting the
translation, I have naturally replaced the technical terminology used
in the notebook version with that used in the sutta. In places I also
decided to translate directly from the Pali text rather than adhere to
Ven. Nanamoli's rendering, which sometimes tended to be literal to the
point of awkwardness. A few passages from the commentary that are
concerned solely with linguistic clarification have been omitted from
the translation.
Passages in the commentarial section enclosed in square brackets
are taken from the subcommentary to the Sammaditthi Sutta, by Acariya
Dhammapala. Passages in parenthesis are additions either by Ven.
Nanamoli or by myself. The paragraph numbering of the commentarial
section follows that of the sutta. The phrases of the sutta that are
selected for comment have been set in boldface. The backnotes are
entirely my own.
Bhikkhu Bodhi
* * * * * * * *
PART ONE:
THE DISCOURSE ON RIGHT VIEW
(Sammaditthi Sutta)
1. Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Blessed One was living at
Savatthi in Jeta's Grove, Anathapindika's Park. There the Venerable
Sariputta addressed the bhikkhus thus: "Friends, bhikkhus." --
"Friend," they replied. The Venerable Sariputta said this:
2. "'One of right view, one of right view' is said, friends. In
what way is a noble disciple one of right view, whose view is
straight, who has perfect confidence in the Dhamma, and has arrived at
this true Dhamma?"
"Indeed, friend, we would come from far away to learn from the
Venerable Sariputta the meaning of this statement. It would be good if
the Venerable Sariputta would explain the meaning of this statement.
Having heard it from him, the bhikkhus will remember it."
"Then, friends, listen and attend closely to what I shall say."
"Yes, friend," the bhikkhus replied. The Venerable Sariputta said
this:
The Wholesome and the Unwholesome
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
3. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands the unwholesome, the
root of the unwholesome, the wholesome, and the root of the wholesome,
in that way he is one of right view, whose view is straight, who has
perfect confidence in the Dhamma, and has arrived at this true Dhamma.
4. "And what, friends, is the unwholesome, what is the root of the
unwholesome, what is the wholesome, what is the root of the wholesome?
Killing living beings is unwholesome; taking what is not given is
unwholesome; misconduct in sensual pleasures is unwholesome; false
speech is unwholesome; malicious speech is unwholesome; harsh speech
is unwholesome; gossip is unwholesome; covetousness is unwholesome;
ill will is unwholesome; wrong view is unwholesome. This is called the
unwholesome.
5. "And what is the root of the unwholesome? Greed is a root of the
unwholesome; hate is a root of the unwholesome; delusion is a root of
the unwholesome. This is called the root of the unwholesome.
6. "And what is the wholesome? Abstention from killing living
beings is wholesome; abstention from taking what is not given is
wholesome; abstention from misconduct in sensual pleasures is
wholesome; abstention from false speech is wholesome; abstention from
malicious speech is wholesome; abstention from harsh speech is
wholesome; abstention from gossip is wholesome; non-covetousness is
wholesome; non-ill will is wholesome; right view is wholesome. This is
called the wholesome.
7. "And what is the root of the wholesome? Non-greed is a root of
the wholesome; non-hate is a root of the wholesome; non-delusion is a
root of the wholesome. This is called the root of the wholesome.
8. "When a noble disciple has thus understood the unwholesome, the
root of the unwholesome, the wholesome, and the root of the wholesome,
he entirely abandons the underlying tendency to lust, he abolishes the
underlying tendency to aversion, he extirpates the underlying tendency
to the view and conceit 'I am,' and by abandoning ignorance and
arousing true knowledge he here and now makes an end of suffering. In
that way too a noble disciple is one of right view, whose view is
straight, who has perfect confidence in the Dhamma and has arrived at
this true Dhamma."
Nutriment
~~~~~~~~~
9. Saying, "Good, friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in the
Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question:
"But, friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is
one of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There
might be, friends.
10. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands nutriment, the
origin of nutriment, the cessation of nutriment, and the way leading
to the cessation of nutriment, in that way he is one of right view ...
and has arrived at this true Dhamma.
11. "And what is nutriment, what is the origin of nutriment, what
is the cessation of nutriment, what is the way leading to the
cessation of nutriment? There are these four kinds of nutriment for
the maintenance of beings that already have come to be and for the
support of those seeking a new existence. What four? They are physical
food as nutriment, gross or subtle; contact as the second; mental
volition as the third; and consciousness as the fourth. With the
arising of craving there is the arising of nutriment. With the
cessation of craving there is the cessation of nutriment. The way
leading to the cessation of nutriment is just this Noble Eightfold
Path; that is, right view, right intention, right speech, right
action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness and right
concentration.
12. "When a noble disciple has thus understood nutriment, the
origin of nutriment, the cessation of nutriment, and the way leading
to the cessation of nutriment, he entirely abandons the underlying
tendency to greed, he abolishes the underlying tendency to aversion,
he extirpates the underlying tendency to the view and conceit 'I am,'
and by abandoning ignorance and arousing true knowledge he here and
now makes an end of suffering. In that way too a noble disciple is one
of right view, whose view is straight, who has perfect confidence in
the Dhamma and has arrived at this true Dhamma."
The Four Noble Truths
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
13. Saying, "Good, friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in the
Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question:
"But, friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is
one of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There
might be, friends.
14. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands suffering, the
origin of suffering, the cessation of suffering, and the way leading
to the cessation of suffering, in that way he is one of right view ...
and has arrived at this true Dhamma.
15. "And what is suffering, what is the origin of suffering, what
is the cessation of suffering, what is the way leading to the
cessation of suffering? Birth is suffering; aging is suffering;
sickness is suffering; death is suffering; sorrow, lamentation, pain,
grief and despair are suffering; not to obtain what one wants is
suffering; in short, the five aggregates affected by clinging are
suffering. This is called suffering.
16. "And what is the origin of suffering? It is craving, which
brings renewal of being, is accompanied by delight and lust, and
delights in this and that; that is, craving for sensual pleasures,
craving for being and craving for non-being. This is called the origin
of suffering.
17. "And what is the cessation of suffering? It is the
remainderless fading away and ceasing, the giving up, relinquishing,
letting go and rejecting of that same craving. This is called the
cessation of suffering.
18. "And what is the way leading to the cessation of suffering? It
is just this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view ... right
concentration. This is called the way leading to the cessation of
suffering.
19. "When a noble disciple has thus understood suffering, the
origin of suffering, the cessation of suffering, and the way leading
to the cessation of suffering ... he here and now makes an end of
suffering. In that way too a noble disciple is one of right view ...
and has arrived at this true Dhamma."
Aging and Death
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
20. Saying, "Good, friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in the
Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question:
"But, friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is
one of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There
might be, friends.
21. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands aging and death,
the origin of aging and death, the cessation of aging and death, and
the way leading to the cessation of aging and death, in that way he is
one of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma.
22. "And what is aging and death, what is the origin of aging and
death, what is the cessation of aging and death, what is the way
leading to the cessation of aging and death? The aging of beings in
the various orders of beings, their old age, brokenness of teeth,
grayness of hair, wrinkling of skin, decline of life, weakness of
faculties -- this is called aging. The passing of beings out of the
various orders of beings, their passing away, dissolution,
disappearance, dying, completion of time, dissolution of the
aggregates, laying down of the body -- this is called death. So this
aging and this death are what is called aging and death. With the
arising of birth there is the arising of aging and death. With the
cessation of birth there is the cessation of aging and death. The way
leading to the cessation of aging and death is just this Noble
Eightfold Path; that is, right view ... right concentration.
23. "When a noble disciple has thus understood aging and death, the
origin of aging and death, the cessation of aging and death, and the
way leading to the cessation of aging and death ... he here and now
makes an end of suffering. In that way too a noble disciple is one of
right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma."
Birth
~~~~~
24. Saying, "Good, friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in the
Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question:
"But, friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is
one of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There
might be, friends.
25. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands birth, the origin
of birth, the cessation of birth, and the way leading to the cessation
of birth, in that way he is one of right view ... and has arrived at
this true Dhamma.
26. "And what is birth, what is the origin of birth, what is the
cessation of birth, what is the way leading to the cessation of birth?
The birth of beings into the various orders of beings, their coming to
birth, precipitation (in a womb), generation, manifestation of the
aggregates, obtaining the bases for contact -- this is called birth.
With the arising of being there is the arising of birth. With the
cessation of being there is the cessation of birth. The way leading to
the cessation of birth is just this Noble Eightfold Path; that is,
right view ... right concentration.
27. "When a noble disciple has thus understood birth, the origin of
birth, the cessation of birth, and the way leading to the cessation of
birth ... he here and now makes an end of suffering. In that way too a
noble disciple is one of right view ... and has arrived at this true
Dhamma."
Being
~~~~~
28. Saying, "Good, friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in the
Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question:
"But, friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is
one of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There
might be, friends.
29. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands being, the origin
of being, the cessation of being, and the way leading to the cessation
of being, in that way he is one of right view ... and has arrived at
this true Dhamma.
30. "And what is being, what is the origin of being, what is the
cessation of being, what is the way leading to the cessation of being?
There are these three kinds of being: sense-sphere being,
fine-material being and immaterial being. With the arising of clinging
there is the arising of being. With the cessation of clinging there is
the cessation of being. The way leading to the cessation of being is
just this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view ... right
concentration.
31. "When a noble disciple has thus understood being, the origin of
being, the cessation of being, and the way leading to the cessation of
being ... he here and now makes an end of suffering. In that way too a
noble disciple is one of right view ... and has arrived at this true
Dhamma."
Clinging
~~~~~~~~
32. Saying, "Good, friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in the
Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question:
"But, friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is
one of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There
might be, friends.
33. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands clinging, the
origin of clinging, the cessation of clinging, and the way leading to
the cessation of clinging, in that way he is one of right view ... and
has arrived at this true Dhamma.
34. "And what is clinging, what is the origin of clinging, what is
the cessation of clinging, what is the way leading to the cessation of
clinging? There are these four kinds of clinging: clinging to sensual
pleasures, clinging to views, clinging to rituals and observances, and
clinging to a doctrine of self. With the arising of craving there is
the arising of clinging. With the cessation of craving there is the
cessation of clinging. The way leading to the cessation of clinging is
just this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view ... right
concentration.
35. "When a noble disciple has thus understood clinging, the origin
of clinging, the cessation of clinging, and the way leading to the
cessation of clinging ... he here and now makes an end of suffering.
In that way too a noble disciple is one of right view ... and has
arrived at this true Dhamma."
Craving
~~~~~~~
36. Saying, "Good, friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in the
Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question:
"But, friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is
one of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There
might be, friends.
37. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands craving, the
origin of craving, the cessation of craving, and the way leading to
the cessation of craving, in that way he is one of right view ... and
has arrived at this true Dhamma.
38. "And what is craving, what is the origin of craving, what is
the cessation of craving, what is the way leading to the cessation of
craving? There are these six classes of craving: craving for forms,
craving for sounds, craving for odors, craving for flavors, craving
for tangibles, craving for mind-objects. With the arising of feeling
there is the arising of craving. With the cessation of feeling there
is the cessation of craving. The way leading to the cessation of
craving is just this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view ...
right concentration.
39. "When a noble disciple has thus understood craving, the origin
of craving, the cessation of craving, and the way leading to the
cessation of craving ... he here and now makes an end of suffering. In
that way too a noble disciple is one of right view ... and has arrived
at this true Dhamma."
Feeling
~~~~~~~
40. Saying, "Good, friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in the
Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question:
"But, friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is
one of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There
might be, friends.
41. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands feeling, the
origin of feeling, the cessation of feeling, and the way leading to
the cessation of feeling, in that way he is one of right view ... and
has arrived at this true Dhamma.
42. "And what is feeling, what is the origin of feeling, what is
the cessation of feeling, what is the way leading to the cessation of
feeling? There are these six classes of feeling: feeling born of
eye-contact, feeling born of ear-contact, feeling born of
nose-contact, feeling born of tongue-contact, feeling born of
body-contact, feeling born of mind-contact. With the arising of
contact there is the arising of feeling. With the cessation of contact
there is the cessation of feeling. The way leading to the cessation of
feeling is just this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view ...
right concentration.
43. "When a noble disciple has thus understood feeling, the origin
of feeling, the cessation of feeling, and the way leading to the
cessation of feeling ... he here and now makes an end of suffering. In
that way too a noble disciple is one of right view ... and has arrived
at this true Dhamma."
Contact
~~~~~~~
44. Saying, "Good, friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in the
Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question:
"But, friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is
one of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There
might be, friends.
45. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands contact, the
origin of contact, the cessation of contact, and the way leading to
the cessation of contact, in that way he is one of right view ... and
has arrived at this true Dhamma.
46. "And what is contact, what is the origin of contact, what is
the cessation of contact, what is the way leading to the cessation of
contact? There are these six classes of contact: eye-contact,
ear-contact, nose-contact, tongue-contact, body-contact, mind-contact.
With the arising of the sixfold base there is the arising of contact.
With the cessation of the sixfold base there is the cessation of
contact. The way leading to the cessation of contact is just this
Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view ... right concentration.
47. "When a noble disciple has thus understood contact, the origin
of contact, the cessation of contact, and the way leading to the
cessation of contact ... he here and now makes an end of suffering. In
that way too a noble disciple is one of right view ... and has arrived
at this true Dhamma."
The Sixfold Base
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
48. Saying, "Good, friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in the
Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question:
"But, friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is
one of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There
might be, friends.
49. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands the sixfold base,
the origin of the sixfold base, the cessation of the sixfold base, and
the way leading to the cessation of the sixfold base, he is one of
right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma.
50. "And what is the sixfold base, what is the origin of the
sixfold base, what is the cessation of the sixfold base, what is the
way leading to the cessation of the sixfold base? There are these six
bases: the eye-base, the ear-base, the nose-base, the tongue-base, the
body-base, the mind-base. With the arising of mentality-materiality
there is the arising of the sixfold base. With the cessation of
mentality-materiality there is the cessation of the sixfold base. The
way leading to the cessation of the sixfold base is just this Noble
Eightfold Path; that is, right view ... right concentration.
51. "When a noble disciple has thus understood the sixfold base,
the origin of the sixfold base, the cessation of the sixfold base, and
the way leading to the cessation of the sixfold base ... he here and
now makes an end of suffering. In that way too a noble disciple is one
of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma."
Mentality-Materiality
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
52. Saying, "Good, friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in
the Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further
question: "But, friend, might there be another way in which a noble
disciple is one of right view ... and has arrived at this true
Dhamma?" -- "There might be, friends.
53. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands
mentality-materiality, the origin of mentality-materiality, the
cessation of mentality-materiality, and the way leading to the
cessation of mentality-materiality, in that way he is one of right
view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma.
54. "And what is mentality-materiality, what is the origin of
mentality-materiality, what is the cessation of mentality-materiality,
what is the way leading to the cessation of mentality-materiality?
Feeling, perception, volition, contact and attention -- these are
called mentality. The four great elements and the material form
derived from the four great elements -- these are called materiality.
So this mentality and this materiality are what is called
mentality-materiality. With the arising of consciousness there is the
arising of mentality-materiality. With the cessation of consciousness
there is the cessation of mentality-materiality. The way leading to
the cessation of mentality-materiality is just this Noble Eightfold
Path; that is, right view ... right concentration.
55. "When a noble disciple has thus understood
mentality-materiality, the origin of mentality-materiality, the
cessation of mentality-materiality, and the way leading to the
cessation of mentality-materiality ... he here and now makes an end of
suffering. In that way too a noble disciple is one of right view ...
and has arrived at this true Dhamma."
Consciousness
~~~~~~~~~~~~~
56. Saying, "Good, friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in the
Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question:
"But, friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is
one of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There
might be, friends.
57. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands consciousness, the
origin of consciousness, the cessation of consciousness, and the way
leading to the cessation of consciousness, in that way he is one of
right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma.
58. "And what is consciousness, what is the origin of
consciousness, what is the cessation of consciousness, what is the way
leading to the cessation of consciousness? There are these six classes
of consciousness: eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness,
nose-consciousness, tongue-consciousness, body-consciousness,
mind-consciousness. With the arising of formations there is the
arising of consciousness. With the cessation of formations there is
the cessation of consciousness. The way leading to the cessation of
consciousness is just this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view
... right concentration.
59. "When a noble disciple has thus understood consciousness, the
origin of consciousness, the cessation of consciousness, and the way
leading to the cessation of consciousness ... he here and now makes an
end of suffering. In that way too a noble disciple is one of right
view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma."
Formations
~~~~~~~~~~
60. Saying, "Good friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in the
Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question:
"But, friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is
one of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There
might be, friends.
61. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands formations, the
origin of formations, the cessation of formations, and the way leading
to the cessation of formations, in that way he is one of right view
... and has arrived at this true Dhamma.
62. "And what are formations, what is the origin of formations,
what is the cessation of formations, what is the way leading to the
cessation of formations? There are these three kinds of formations:
the bodily formation, the verbal formation, the mental formation. With
the arising of ignorance there is the arising of formations. With the
cessation of ignorance there is the cessation of formations. The way
leading to the cessation of formations is just this Noble Eightfold
Path; that is, right view ... right concentration.
63. "When a noble disciple has thus understood formations, the
origin of formations, the cessation of formations, and the way leading
to the cessation of formations ... he here and now makes an end of
suffering. In that way too a noble disciple is one of right view ...
and has arrived at this true Dhamma."
Ignorance
~~~~~~~~~
64. Saying, "Good friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in the
Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question:
"But, friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is
one of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There
might be, friends.
65. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands ignorance, the
origin of ignorance, the cessation of ignorance, and the way leading
to the cessation of ignorance, in that way he is one of right view ...
and has arrived at this true Dhamma.
66. "And what is ignorance, what is the origin of ignorance, what
is the cessation of ignorance, what is the way leading to the
cessation of ignorance? Not knowing about suffering, not knowing about
the origin of suffering, not knowing about the cessation of suffering,
not knowing about the way leading to the cessation of suffering --
this is called ignorance. With the arising of the taints there is the
arising of ignorance. With the cessation of the taints there is the
cessation of ignorance. The way leading to the cessation of ignorance
is just this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view ... right
concentration.
67. "When a noble disciple has thus understood ignorance, the
origin of ignorance, the cessation of ignorance, and the way leading
to the cessation of ignorance ... he here and now makes an end of
suffering. In that way too a noble disciple is one of right view ...
and has arrived at this true Dhamma."
Taints
~~~~~~
68. Saying, "Good, friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in the
Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question:
"But, friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is
one of right view, whose view is straight, who has perfect confidence
in the Dhamma and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There might
be, friends.
69. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands the taints, the
origin of the taints, the cessation of the taints, and the way leading
to the cessation of the taints, in that way he is one of right view,
whose view is straight, who has perfect confidence in the Dhamma and
has arrived at this true Dhamma.
70. "And what are the taints, what is the origin of the taints,
what is the cessation of the taints, what is the way leading to the
cessation of the taints? There are three taints: the taint of sensual
desire, the taint of being and the taint of ignorance. With the
arising of ignorance there is the arising of the taints. With the
cessation of ignorance there is the cessation of the taints. The way
leading to the cessation of the taints is just this Noble Eightfold
Path; that is, right view, right intention, right speech, right
action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness and right
concentration.
71. "When a noble disciple has thus understood the taints, the
origin of the taints, the cessation of the taints, and the way leading
to the cessation of the taints, he entirely abandons the underlying
tendency to lust, he abolishes the underlying tendency to aversion, he
extirpates the underlying tendency to the view and conceit 'I am,' and
by abandoning ignorance and arousing true knowledge he here and now
makes an end of suffering. In that way too a noble disciple is one of
right view, whose view is straight, who has perfect confidence in the
Dhamma and has arrived at this true Dhamma."
That is what the Venerable Sariputta said. The bhikkhus were satisfied
and delighted in the Venerable Sariputta's words.
* * * * * * * *
PART TWO:
THE COMMENTARY TO THE DISCOURSE ON RIGHT VIEW
1. Thus have I heard: the Sammaditthi Sutta.
2. Herein, all such questions spoken by the Elder as " 'One of
right view, one of right view' is said, friends. In what way is a
noble disciple one of right view ...?" or "And what, friends, is the
unwholesome ...?" -- these are questions showing a desire to expound.
Herein, since those who know, those who do not know, those outside the
Dispensation, those within it, those who speak by hearsay, etc., and
those who speak by personal knowledge, say "one of right view,"
therefore, taking it as an expression (common) to the many, he touched
upon it twice, saying "One of right view, one of right view" is said,
friends (//sammaditthi sammaditthi ti avuso vuccati//). The intention
here is this: "Others say 'one of right view,' and still others say
'one of right view.' Since that is said, in what way, friends, is a
noble disciple one of right view in respect of meaning and
characteristic?" Herein, one of right view is one possessing a lucid
and praiseworthy view (//sobhanaya pasatthaya ca ditthiya
samannagato//). But when this word "right view" is used to signify a
state (rather than a person endowed with that state), it then means a
lucid and praiseworthy view.[1]
This right view is twofold: mundane (//lokiya//) and supramundane
(//lokuttara//). Herein, the knowledge of kamma as one's own and
knowledge which is in conformity with the (Four Noble) Truths are
mundane right view; or, in brief, (mundane right view is) all
understanding that is accompanied by the taints.[2] Understanding
connected with the noble paths and fruits is supramundane right
view.[3] The person possessing right view is of three kinds: the
worldling (//puthujjana//), the disciple in higher training
(//sekha//), and the one beyond training (//asekha//). Herein, the
worldling is of two kinds: one outside the Dispensation and one within
the Dispensation. Herein, one outside the Dispensation who believes in
kamma is one of right view on account of the view of kamma as one's
own, but not on account of that which is in conformity with the
truths, because he holds to the view of self. One within the
Dispensation is of right view on account of both. The disciple in
higher training is one of right view on account of fixed right
view,[4] the one beyond training on account of (the right view) that
is beyond training.[5]
But here "one of right view" is intended as one possessing
supramundane wholesome right view, which is fixed in destiny and
emancipating. Hence he said: whose view is straight, who has perfect
confidence in the Dhamma, and has arrived at this true Dhamma
(//ujugata'ssa ditthi dhamme aveccappasadena samannagato agato imam
saddhammam//). Because of its going straight without deviating to
either extreme, or because of its going straight by removing all
crookedness such as bodily crookedness, etc., supramundane right view
is "straight." One possessing that view also possesses perfect
confidence, unshakable confidence, in the ninefold supramundane
Dhamma.[6] And by becoming disentangled from all the thickets of
(wrong) views, by abandoning all the defilements, by departing from
the round of rebirths, by bringing the practice to its consummation,
he is said to have come by the noble path to this "true Dhamma"
proclaimed by the Enlightened One, that is, Nibbana, the plunge into
the Deathless.
The Wholesome and the Unwholesome
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
3. Understands the unwholesome (//akusalan ca pajanati//): he
understands the unwholesome called the ten courses of unwholesome
kamma (action), penetrating this by way of function with the
understanding that has Nibbana as its object as "This is suffering."
(Understands) the root of the unwholesome (//akusalamulan ca
pajanati//): And he understands the unwholesome root which has become
the root condition of that (unwholesome), penetrating this, in the
same way, as "This is the origin of suffering." The same method
applies here also in regard to "the wholesome" and "the root of the
wholesome." And, as it is here, so in all the following sections, the
understanding of the subject should be understood by way of function.
In that way (//ettavata pi//): by this much; by this understanding
of the unwholesome, etc. He is one of right view (//sammaditthi
hoti//): he possesses supramundane right view of the kind aforesaid.
Whose view is straight ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma: At
this point the summary version of the teaching has been expounded. And
this (part of) the teaching itself was brief; but for those bhikkhus
it should be understood that the penetration (of the meaning) through
right attention occurred in detail.
But in the second section (Section 4) it should be understood that
the teaching too, as well as the penetration through attention, is
stated in detail.
Herein, the bhikkhus [at the council at the Great Monastery held to
rehearse the Pitakas] said: "In the brief exposition the two lower
paths are discussed, in the detailed exposition the two higher paths,"
taking into account the passage at the end of the sections setting
forth the detailed exposition that begins "he entirely abandons the
underlying tendency to lust." But the Elder (presiding over the
council) said: "In the brief exposition the four paths are expounded
as a group, and also in the detailed exposition."[7]
This query into the brief and detailed expositions which has been
cleared up here should be understood in all the following sections in
the way stated here. From here on we shall only comment on terms that
are new or obscure.
The Unwholesome Courses of Action
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
4. Herein, firstly, in the detailed exposition of the first section:
as regards the passage beginning killing living beings is unwholesome
(//panatipato kho avuso akusalam//), "unwholesome" should be
understood by way of the occurrence of unwholesomeness, or as what is
opposed to the wholesome, which is to be dealt with below (Section 6).
As to characteristic, it is blameworthy and has painful result, or it
is defiled. This, in the first place, is the comment upon the general
terms here.
But as regards the particular terms, the phrase killing living
beings means the slaughter of a living being, the destruction of a
living being. And here a living being (//pana//) is, according to
ordinary usage, a being (//satta//); in the ultimate sense it is the
life faculty. "Killing living beings" is the volition to kill on the
part of one who is aware, in respect of a living being, that it is a
living being, and which (volition), manifesting itself through one or
the other of the doors of body and speech, initiates activity
resulting in the cutting off of the life faculty.
In relation to beings such as animals, etc., which lack moral
qualities (//guna//), it is less blameworthy in respect of small
living beings and more blameworthy in respect of beings with large
bodies. Why? Because of the magnitude of the effort involved. And when
the effort involved is equal, because of the magnitude of the object
(the being killed). In relation to beings such as humans, etc., who
possess moral qualities, it is less blameworthy in respect of beings
with few good qualities and more blameworthy in respect of beings with
great qualities. When the size of the body and moral qualities are
equal, however, it is less blameworthy when the defilements and
activity are mild, and more blameworthy when they are strong: so it
should be understood.
There are five constituents for this (act of killing a living
being): a living being, awareness that it is a living being, the mind
to kill, activity, and the death (of the being) thereby.
There are six means: one's own person, command, a missile, a fixed
contrivance, a magical spell, supernormal power.
To explore this matter in detail, however, would involve too much
diffuseness. Therefore we shall not explore it in detail, or any other
subject similar in kind. Those who wish to go into the matter may do
so by looking it up in the Samantapasadika, the Vinaya Commentary.[8]
Taking what is not given (//adinnadana//): the carrying off of
others' goods, stealing, robbery, is what is meant. Herein, "what is
not given" is another's possession, which the other may use as he
likes without incurring penalty or blame. "Taking what is not given"
is the volition to steal on the part of one who is aware, in respect
of another's possession, that it is another's possession, and which
(volition) initiates activity resulting in the taking of that thing.
That (taking of what is not given) is less blameworthy when the
other's property is of low value, and more blameworthy when it is of
high value. Why? Because of the high value of the object (stolen).
When the value of the objects is equal, the act is more blameworthy
when the object belongs to one of outstanding qualities, and less
blameworthy when the object belongs to one who, in comparison, is
inferior with respect to moral qualities.
There are five constituents of this act: another's possession,
awareness that it is another's possession, the mind to steal, the
activity, and the carrying off (of the object) thereby.
There are six means: one's own person, etc. (as for killing).
And these (acts of stealing) may be classed, according to the way
in which they occur, by way of the following: taking by theft, by
force, by concealment, by stratagem, by fraud. This here is in brief;
the details, however, are given in the Samantapasadika.[9]
Misconduct in sensual pleasures (//kamesu micchacara//): here, "in
sensual pleasures" (//kamesu//) means in regard to sexual intercourse.
"Misconduct" is entirely reprehensible vile conduct. As to
characteristic, sexual misconduct is the volition to transgress bounds
occurring through the body door by way of unrighteous intent.
Herein, out of bounds for men, firstly, are the twenty kinds of
women, that is, the ten beginning with those protected by the mother,
namely, "protected by the mother, protected by the father, protected
by the mother and father, protected by the brother, protected by the
sister, protected by relatives, protected by the clan, protected by
the law, under protection, entailing a penalty"; and the ten beginning
with those purchased with money, namely, "one purchased with money,
one who lives (with a man) by her own desire, one who lives (with a
man) on account of wealth, one who lives (with a man) on account of
cloth, one who is given (in marriage with the ceremony of) dipping the
hand in water, one who has been (taken to wife and) relieved of her
burden-carrying head-pad, one who is a slave and a wife, one who is a
servant and a wife, one who is carried off in a raid, one engaged at
so much a time."[10]
Then, as concerns women, for the twelve kinds of women consisting
of the two, namely, under protection and entailing a penalty, and the
ten beginning with those purchased with money, other men are out of
bounds.
This sexual misconduct is less blameworthy when (the person) out of
bounds is without good qualities such as virtue, etc., and more
blameworthy when (the person) possesses good qualities such as virtue,
etc. There are four constituents of this act: an object which is out
of bounds, the mind to engage in that, the effort to engage, and
consent to the union of sexual organs.[11] The means is single: one's
own person.
False speech (//musavada//): "false" (//musa//) is the verbal
effort or bodily effort for destroying welfare (made) by one bent on
deceiving. "False speech" is the volition initiating the verbal effort
or bodily effort of deceiving another on the part of one intent on
deceiving. According to another method, "false" means an unreal,
untrue case, "speech" the communication of that as being real, true.
As to characteristic, "false speech" is the volition of one desiring
to communicate to another an untrue case as being true, which
(volition) initiates such an act of communication.
This is less blameworthy when the welfare destroyed is slight, and
more blameworthy when the welfare destroyed is great. Further, when it
occurs on the part of householders who, not wishing to give away some
belonging of theirs, say "I do not have it," it is less blameworthy;
when one who is a witness speaks (falsely) for the purpose of
destroying another's welfare, it is more blameworthy. In the case of
those gone forth, when it occurs by their saying as a joke, after they
have obtained just a little oil or ghee, in the manner of the Puranas,
"Today the oil is flowing in the village just like a river," then it
is less blameworthy; but for those who speak (as a witness) saying
that they have seen what they have not seen it is more blameworthy.
There are four constituents of this act: an untrue case, the mind
to deceive, the appropriate effort, the communicating of that meaning
to another. The means is single: one's own person only. That is to be
regarded as the performing of the action of deceiving another by means
of the body or by means of something attached to the body or by means
of speech. If, through that action, the other understands that
meaning, one is bound by the kamma of false speech at the very moment
of the volition initiating the action.
Malicious speech, etc.: The kind of speech that creates in the
heart of the person to whom it is spoken affection for oneself and
voidness (of affection) for another is malicious speech (//pisuna
vaca//). The kind of speech by which one makes both oneself and
another harsh, the kind of speech which is also itself harsh, being
pleasant neither to the ear nor to the heart -- that is harsh speech
(//pharusa vaca//). That by which one gossips idly, without meaning,
is gossip (//samphappalapa//). Also, the volition that is the root
cause of these gains the name "malicious speech," etc. And that only
is intended here.
Therein, malicious speech is the volition of one with a defiled
mind, which (volition) initiates an effort by body or by speech either
to cause division among others or to endear oneself (to another). It
is less blameworthy when the person divided has few good qualities,
and more blameworthy when such a one has great qualities. Its
constituents are four: another person to be divided, the intention to
divide, (thinking) "Thus these will be separated and split" or the
desire to endear oneself, (thinking) "Thus I shall become loved and
intimate," the appropriate effort, the communicating of that meaning
to that person.
Harsh speech is the entirely harsh volition initiating an effort by
body or by speech to wound another's vital feelings. This is an
example given for the purpose of making it clear: A village boy, it is
said, went to the forest without heeding his mother's words. Unable to
make him turn back, she scolded him angrily, saying: "May a wild
buffalo chase you!" Then a buffalo appeared before him right there in
the forest. The boy made an asseveration of truth, saying: "Let it not
be as my mother said but as she thought!" The buffalo stood as though
tied there. Thus, although the means (employed) was that of wounding
the vital feelings, because of the gentleness of her mind it was not
harsh speech. For sometimes parents even say to their children, "May
robbers chop you to pieces!" yet they do not even wish a lotus leaf to
fall upon them. And teachers and preceptors sometimes say to their
pupils, "What is the use of these shameless and heedless brats? Drive
them out!" yet they wish for their success in learning and attainment.
Just as, through gentleness of mind, speech is not harsh, so
through gentleness of speech, speech does not become unharsh; for the
words "Let him sleep in peace" spoken by one wishing to kill are not
unharsh speech. But harsh speech is such on account of harshness of
mind only. It is less blameworthy when the person to whom it is spoken
has few good qualities, and more blameworthy when such a one has great
qualities. Its constituents are three: another to be abused, an angry
mind, the abusing.
Gossip is the unwholesome volition initiating an effort by body or
by speech to communicate what is purposeless. It is less blameworthy
when indulged in mildly, and more blameworthy when indulged in
strongly. Its constituents are two: the being intent on purposeless
stories such as the Bharata war or the abduction of Sita, etc., and
the telling of such stories.[12]
Covetousness (//abhijjha//): It covets, thus it is covetousness;
"having become directed towards others' goods, it occurs through
inclination towards them" is the meaning. It has the characteristic of
coveting others' goods thus: "Oh, that this were mine!" It is less
blameworthy and more blameworthy as in the case of taking what is not
given. Its constituents are two: another's goods, and the inclination
for them to be one's own. For even though greed has arisen based on
another's goods, it is not classed as a (completed) course of kamma so
long as one does not incline to them as one's own (with the thought),
"Oh, that this were mine!"
Ill will (//byapada//): It injures welfare and happiness, thus it
is ill will (//hitasukham byapadayati ti byapado//). Its
characteristic is the mental defect (of wishing for) the destruction
of others. It is less blameworthy and more blameworthy as in the case
of harsh speech. Its constituents are two: another being, and the wish
for that being's destruction. For even though anger has arisen based
on another being, there is no breach of a course of kamma so long as
one does not wish, "Oh, that this being might be cut off and
destroyed!"
Wrong view (//micchaditthi//): It sees wrongly due to the absence
of a correct grasp of things, thus it is wrong view. Its
characteristic is the mistaken view that "there is no (result from)
giving," etc. It is less blameworthy and more blameworthy as in the
case of gossip. Moreover, it is less blameworthy when not fixed in
destiny, and more blameworthy when fixed.[13] Its constituents are
two: a mistaken manner of grasping the basis (for the view), and the
appearance of that (basis) in accordance with the manner in which it
has been grasped.
Now the exposition of these ten courses of unwholesome kamma should
be understood in five ways: as to mental state (//dhammato//), as to
category (//kotthasato//), as to object (//arammanato//), as to
feeling (//vedanato//), and as to root (//mulato//).
Herein, as to mental state: The first seven among these are
volitional states only. The three beginning with covetousness are
associated with volition.[14]
As to category: The eight consisting of the first seven and wrong
view are courses of kamma only, not roots. Covetousness and ill will
are courses of kamma and also roots; for covetousness, having arrived
at the (state of) a root, is the unwholesome root greed, and ill will
is the unwholesome root hate.
As to object: Killing living beings, because it has the life
faculty as object, has a formation as object. Taking what is not given
has beings as object or formations as object. Misconduct in sensual
pleasures has formations as object by way of tangible object; but some
say it also has beings as object. False speech has beings or
formations as object; likewise malicious speech. Harsh speech has only
beings as object. Gossip has either beings or formations as object by
way of the seen, heard, sensed and cognized; likewise covetousness.
Ill will has only beings as object. Wrong view has formations as
object by way of the states belonging to the three planes (of being).
As to feeling: Killing living beings has painful feeling; for
although kings, seeing a robber, say laughingly, "Go and execute him,"
their volition consummating the action is associated only with pain.
Taking what is not given has three feelings. Misconduct (in sensual
pleasures) has two feelings, pleasant and neutral, but in the mind
which consummates the action there is no neutral feeling. False speech
has three feelings; likewise malicious speech. Harsh speech has
painful feeling only. Gossip has three feelings. Covetousness has two
feelings, pleasant and neutral; likewise wrong view. Ill will has
painful feeling only.
As to root: Killing living beings has two roots, by way of hate and
delusion; taking what is not given, by way of hate and delusion or by
way of greed and delusion; misconduct, by way of greed and delusion;
false speech, by way of hate and delusion or by way of greed and
delusion; likewise for malicious speech and gossip; harsh speech, by
way of hate and delusion. Covetousness has one root, by way of
delusion; likewise ill will. Wrong view has two roots, by way of greed
and delusion.
The Unwholesome Roots
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
5. Greed is a root of the unwholesome, etc.: It is greedy, thus it is
greed (//lubbhati ti lobho//); it offends against (it hates), thus it
is hate (//dussati ti doso//); it deludes, thus it is delusion
(//muyhati ti moho//). Among these, greed is itself unwholesome in the
sense that it is blameworthy and has painful results; and it is a root
of these unwholesome (deeds) beginning with killing living beings, for
some in the sense that it is an associated originative cause, for some
in the sense that it is a decisive support condition. Thus it is an
unwholesome root. This too is said: "One who is lustful, friends,
overwhelmed and with mind obsessed by lust, kills a living being"
(A.3:71/i,216; text slightly different). The same method applies to
the state of being unwholesome roots in the cases of hate and
delusion.
The Wholesome Courses of Action
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
6. Abstention from killing living beings is wholesome (//panatipata
veramani//), etc.: Here "killing living beings," etc. have the same
meaning as aforesaid. It crushes the hostile, thus it is abstention
(//veram manati ti veramani//); the meaning is that it abandons the
hostile. Or: with that as the instrument one abstains (//viramati//),
the syllable //ve// being substituted for the syllable vi. This here
is, in the first place, the commentary on the phrasing.
But as to the meaning, abstention is refraining (//virati//)
associated with wholesome consciousness. What is stated thus: "For one
refraining from killing living beings, that which is on that occasion
the leaving off, the refraining" (Vibh. 285), that is the refraining
associated with wholesome consciousness. As to kind, it is threefold:
refraining in the presence of opportunity, refraining because of an
undertaking, and refraining because of eradication (of defilements).
Herein, refraining in the presence of an opportunity
(//sampattavirati//) is to be understood as the refraining which
occurs in those who have not undertaken any training rule but who do
not transgress when an opportunity for doing so presents itself
because they reflect upon their birth, age, learning, etc., like the
lay follower Cakkana in the island of Sri Lanka.
When he was a boy, it is said, his mother developed an illness, and
the doctor said, "Fresh hare's flesh is needed." Then Cakkana's
brother sent him, saying, "Go, dear, and hunt in the field." He went
there. On that occasion a hare had come to eat the young corn. On
seeing him it bolted swiftly, but it got entangled in a creeper and
squealed "kiri, kiri." Guided by the sound, Cakkana went and caught
it, thinking, "I will make medicine for my mother." Then he thought
again, "This is not proper for me, that I should deprive another of
life for the sake of my mother's life." So he released it, saying "Go
and enjoy the grass and the water with the other hares in the forest."
When his brother asked him, "Did you get a hare, dear?" he told him
what had happened. His brother scolded him. He went to his mother and
determined upon an asseveration of truth: "Since I was born I am not
aware that I have ever intentionally deprived a living being of life."
Straightaway his mother became well.
Refraining because of an undertaking (//samadanavirati//) is to be
understood as the refraining which occurs in those who do not
transgress in a particular case because they have undertaken training
rules, giving up even their own lives in the undertaking of the
training rules and in what is superior to that, like the lay follower
who dwelt at Uttaravaddhamana Mountain.
It is said that after undertaking the training rules from the Elder
Pingala Buddharakkhita who lived in the Ambariya Monastery, he was
plowing a field. Then his ox got lost. Searching for it, he climbed up
Uttaravaddhamana Mountain. There a large serpent seized him. He
thought, "Let me cut off his head with this sharp axe." Then he
thought again, "This is not proper for me, that I should break a
training rule that I have undertaken in the presence of my honored
teacher." Thinking up to the third time, "I will give up my life but
not the training rule," he threw the sharp hand axe that was slung on
his shoulder into the forest. Straightaway the creature released him
and went away.
Refraining because of eradication (of defilements)
(//samucchedavirati//) is to be understood as the refraining
associated with the noble path. After the arising of this even the
thought, "I will kill a living being," does not occur to the noble
persons.
This refraining is called "wholesome" (//kusala//) because of the
occurrence of wholesomeness (//kosalla//); or because of shedding the
vile (//kucchitassa salanato//). Also, evil conduct is commonly called
"weeds" (//kusa//) and it mows this down (//lunati//), thus it is
called "wholesome."
As in the case of the unwholesome, so for these courses of
wholesome kamma the exposition should be understood in five ways: as
to mental state, as to category, as to object, as to feeling, and as
to root.
Herein, as to mental state: The first seven among these can be both
volitions and abstinences; the last three are associated with volition
only.
As to category: The first seven are courses of kamma only, not
roots. The last three are courses of kamma and also roots. For
non-covetousness, having arrived at the (state of) a root, is the
wholesome root non-greed; non-ill will is the wholesome root non-hate;
and right view is the wholesome root non-delusion.
As to object: The objects of these are the same as the objects of
killing living beings, etc. For abstention is spoken of in relation to
something which can be transgressed. But just as the noble path, which
has Nibbana as object, abandons the defilements, so too should these
courses of kamma, which have the life faculty, etc., as object, be
understood to abandon the kinds of evil conduct beginning with killing
living beings.
As to feeling: All have pleasant feeling or neutral feeling. For
there is no painful feeling which arrives at the wholesome.
As to root: The first seven courses of kamma have three roots by
way of non-greed, non-hate, and non-delusion in one who abstains by
means of consciousness associated with knowledge. They have two roots
in one who abstains by means of consciousness dissociated from
knowledge.[15] Non-covetousness has two roots in one who abstains by
means of consciousness associated with knowledge, one root (in one who
abstains) by means of consciousness dissociated from knowledge.
Non-greed, however, is not by itself its own root. The same method
applies in the case of non-ill will. Right view always has two roots,
by way of non-greed and non-hate. [16]
The Wholesome Roots
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
7. Non-greed is a root of the wholesome (//alobho kusalamulam//),
etc.: Non-greed is not greed; this is a term for the state that is
opposed to greed. The same method applies in the case of non-hate and
non-delusion. Among these, non-greed is itself wholesome; and it is a
root of these wholesome (courses of kamma) beginning with abstention
from killing living beings, for some in the sense that it is an
associated originative cause and for some in the sense that it is a
decisive support condition. Thus it is a wholesome root. The same
method applies to the state of being wholesome roots in the cases of
non-hate and non-delusion.
Conclusion on the Unwholesome and the Wholesome
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
8. Now, summing up the meaning of all that has been set forth in brief
and in detail, he states the concluding section beginning with the
words when a noble disciple. Herein, has thus understood the wholesome
(//evam akusalam pajanati//) means: has thus understood the
unwholesome by way of the ten courses of unwholesome kamma as
described. The same method applies in the case of the root of the
unwholesome, etc.
Up to this point, by a single method, emancipation as far as
Arahantship has been expounded for one who has the Four Noble Truths
as his meditation subject. How? Here, the ten courses of unwholesome
kamma with the exception of covetousness, and the (ten) courses of
wholesome kamma, are the truth of suffering. These two states --
covetousness and the greed which is a root of the unwholesome -- are,
literally speaking, the truth of the origin. Speaking figuratively,
however, all the courses of kamma are the truth of suffering, and all
the wholesome and unwholesome roots are the truth of the origin.[17]
The non-occurrence of both is the truth of cessation. The noble path
fully understanding suffering, abandoning its origin, and
understanding its cessation is the truth of the path. Thus two truths
are stated in their own nature and two are to be understood by way of
the guideline of conversion.[18]
He entirely abandons the underlying tendency to lust (//so sabbaso
raganusayam pahaya//): Understanding thus the unwholesome, etc., he
abandons in all ways the underlying tendency to lust. He abolishes the
underlying tendency to aversion (//patighanusayam pativinodetva//):
and he removes in all ways too the underlying tendency to aversion, is
what is meant. Up to this point the path of non-return is stated.[19]
He extirpates the underlying tendency to the view and conceit "I am"
(//asmi ti ditthimananusayam samuhanitva//): he extricates the
underlying tendency to the view and conceit which occurs in the mode
of grasping the five aggregates as a group (with the notion) "I am,"
due to failure to distinguish any state among them.
Therein, by the phrase the underlying tendency to the view and
conceit "I am" (//ditthimananusayam//) what is meant is the underlying
tendency to conceit which is similar to a view (//ditthisadisam
mananusayam//). For this underlying tendency to conceit is similar to
a view because it occurs (with the notion) "I am"; therefore it is
stated thus. And one who wishes to understand this conceit "I am" in
detail should look up the Khemaka Sutta in the Khandhiyavagga
(S.22:89/iii,126ff.).
By abandoning ignorance (//avijjam pahaya//): having abandoned
ignorance, the root of the round (of existence). And arousing true
knowledge (//vijjam uppadetva//): having aroused the true knowledge of
the path of Arahantship which completely extricates that ignorance. At
this point the path of Arahantship is stated.[20] He here and now
makes an end of suffering (//ditth'eva dhamme dukkhass'antakaro
hoti//): in this very existence he becomes one who cuts off the
suffering of the round.
In that way too (//ettavatapi kho avuso//): he marks off (this
first part of) the teaching; by way of the attention and penetration
stated in this exposition of the courses of kamma, is what is meant.
The rest is as aforesaid. Thus he concludes the exposition by means of
the path of non-return and the path of Arahantship.
THE FOUR NUTRIMENTS
General
~~~~~~~
9. Saying, "Good, friend," ... (etc.) ..." and has arrived at this
true Dhamma": Thus, having heard the Venerable Sariputta's exposition
of the four truths under the heading of the wholesome and the
unwholesome, the bhikkhus delighted in his words with the statement,
"Good, friend," and rejoiced with the mind that aroused that
statement; what is meant is that they agreed by word and approved by
mind. Now, because the Elder was competent to give an exposition on
the four truths in diverse ways -- as (the Blessed One) said:
"Bhikkhus, Sariputta is able to propound, to teach, the Four Noble
Truths in detail" (M.141/iii, 248); or because he had said "in that
way too," being desirous of giving a further exposition, the bhikkhus,
being desirous of hearing the teaching of the four truths by another
method, asked him a further question. By asking "But, friend, might
there be another way? Would there be another case?" they asked another
question additional to that question asked and answered (already) by
the Venerable Sariputta himself. Or what is meant is that they asked a
question subsequent to the previous one. Then, answering them, the
Elder said, "There might be, friends," and so on.
10. Herein, this is the elucidation of the terms that are not
clear. Nutriment (//ahara//) is a condition (//paccaya//). For a
condition nourishes its own fruit, therefore it is called
nutriment.[21]
11. Of beings that already have come to be (//bhutanam va
sattanam//), etc.: Here come to be (//bhuta//) means come to birth,
reborn; seeking a new existence (//sambhavesinam//) means those who
seek, search for, existence, birth, production. Therein, among the
four kinds of generation,[22] beings born from eggs and from the womb
are said to be "seeking a new existence" as long as they have not
broken out of the eggshell or the placenta. When they have broken out
of the eggshell or the placenta and emerged outside, they are said to
have "come to be." The moisture-born and the spontaneously born are
said to be "seeking a new existence" at the first moment of
consciousness; from the second moment of consciousness onwards they
are said to have "come to be."
Or alternatively, "come to be" is born, reproduced; this is a term
for those who have destroyed the cankers (//Arahants//), who are
reckoned thus: "They have come to be only, but they will not come to
be again." "Seeking a new existence" means they seek a new existence;
this is a term for worldlings and disciples in higher training who
seek a new existence in the future too, because they have not
abandoned the fetter of being. Thus by these two terms he includes all
beings in all ways.
For the maintenance (//thitiya//); for the purpose of maintaining.
For the support (//anuggahaya//): for the purpose of supporting, for
the purpose of helping. This is merely a difference of words, but the
meaning of the two terms is one only. Or alternatively, "for the
maintenance" is for the non-interruption of this or that being by
means of the serial connection of arisen states. "For the support" is
for the arising of unarisen (states). And both these expressions
should be regarded as applicable in both cases thus: "For the
maintenance and support of those that have come to be, and for the
maintenance and support of those seeking a new existence."
The Four Kinds of Nutriment
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Physical food as nutriment (lit. "food made into a ball")
(//kabalinkaro aharo//) is nutriment that can be swallowed after
making it into a ball; this is a term for the nutritive essence which
has as its basis boiled rice, junket, etc.[23] Gross or subtle
(//olariko va sukhumo va//): it is gross because of the grossness of
the basis, and subtle because of the subtlety of the basis. But
because physical nutriment is included in subtle materiality, by way
of its individual essence it is subtle only.[24] And also that
grossness and subtlety should be understood relatively in respect of
the basis.
The nutriment of peacocks is subtle compared with the nutriment of
crocodiles. Crocodiles, they say, swallow stones, and these dissolve
on reaching their stomachs. Peacocks eat such animals as snakes,
scorpions, etc. But the nutriment of hyenas is subtle compared with
the nutriment of peacocks. These, they say, eat horns and bones thrown
away three years before, and these become soft as yams as soon as they
are moistened with their saliva. Also, the nutriment of elephants is
subtle compared with the nutriment of hyenas. For these eat the
branches of various trees, etc. The nutriment of the gayal buffalo,
the antelope, the deer, etc., is subtler than the nutriment of
elephants. These, they say, eat the sapless leaves of various kinds of
trees, etc. The nutriment of cows is subtler than their nutriment;
they eat fresh and dried grass. The nutriment of hares is subtler than
their nutriment; that of birds is subtler than that of hares; that of
barbarians is subtler than that of birds; that of village headmen is
subtler than that of barbarians; that of kings and kings' ministers is
subtler than village headmens'; that of a Wheel-turning Monarch is
subtler than their nutriment. The earth deities' nutriment is subtler
than that of a Wheel-turning Monarch. The nutriment of the deities of
the Four Great Kings is subtler than that of the earth deities. Thus
nutriment should be elaborated up to that of the deities who wield
power over others' creations.[25] But saying, "Their nutriment is
subtle," the end is reached.
And here, in a basis that is gross, the nutritive essence is
limited and weak; in one that is subtle, it is strong. Thus one who
has drunk even a full bowl of gruel is soon hungry again and desirous
of eating anything; but after drinking even a small amount of ghee, he
will not want to eat for the whole day. Therein, it is the basis that
dispels fatigue, but it is unable to preserve; but the nutritive
essence preserves, though it cannot dispel fatigue. But when the two
are combined they both dispel fatigue and preserve.
Contact as the second (//phasso dutiyo//): The sixfold contact
beginning with eye-contact should be understood as the second of these
four kinds of nutriment. And this is the method of the teaching
itself; therefore it should not be inquired into here, saying "For
this reason it is the second, or the third." Mental volition
(//manosancetana//): volition (//cetana//) itself is stated.
Consciousness (//vinnanam//): any kind of consciousness whatever.
It may be asked here: "If the meaning of condition is the meaning
of nutriment, then, when other conditions also exist for beings, why
are only these four stated?" It should be said in reply: "It is
because they are the special conditions for personal continuity." For
physical nutriment is the special condition for the material body of
beings that eat physical nutriment; as regards the group of mental
constituents, contact is (the special condition) for feeling, mental
volition for consciousness, and consciousness for
mentality-materiality. As it is said: "Just as, bhikkhus, this body
has nutriment for its maintenance, is maintained in dependence on
nutriment, and without nutriment is not maintained" (S.46:2/v,64); and
likewise: "With contact as condition, feeling; ... with formations as
condition, consciousness; ... with consciousness as condition,
mentality-materiality" (S.12:1/ii,1, etc.).
What is this nutriment, and what does it nourish? Physical
nutriment nourishes the materiality with nutritive essence as
eighth;[26] contact as nutriment nourishes the three feelings; mental
volition as nutriment nourishes the three kinds of being;
consciousness as nutriment nourishes the mentality-materiality of
rebirth-linking.
How? As soon as it is placed in the mouth, physical food as
nutriment brings into being the eight kinds of materiality
(aforesaid). Then each lump of cooked rice ground by the teeth, on
being swallowed, brings into being unit after unit of the eight kinds
of materiality. Thus it nourishes the materiality with nutritive
essence as eighth.
But with contact as nutriment, when contact productive of pleasant
feeling arises it nourishes pleasant feeling; contact productive of
painful feeling nourishes painful feeling; contact productive of
neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling nourishes
neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling. Thus in all ways contact as
nutriment nourishes the three kinds of feeling.
In the case of mental volition as nutriment, kamma leading to
sense-sphere being nourishes sense-sphere being; kamma leading to
fine-material and immaterial being nourishes its respective kind of
being. Thus in all ways mental volition as nutriment nourishes the
three kinds of being.
But with consciousness as nutriment, it is said that it nourishes,
by way of conascence condition, etc., the three (immaterial)
aggregates associated with itself at the moment of rebirth-linking and
the thirty kinds of materiality that arise by way of triple
continuity. Thus consciousness nourishes the mentality-materiality of
rebirth-linking.[27]
And here, by the words "mental volition as nutriment nourishes the
three kinds of being," only the wholesome and unwholesome volition
accompanied by taints is meant; by the words "consciousness nourishes
the mentality-materiality of rebirth-linking," only rebirth-linking
consciousness is meant. However, these are to be understood
indiscriminately as nutriments as well because they nourish the states
that are associated with them and originated by them.
The Four Functions
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
As regards these four kinds of nutriment, physical food as nutriment
accomplishes the function of nutriment by sustaining, contact by
contacting (touching), mental volition by accumulating, consciousness
by cognizing.
How? Physical food as nutriment, by sustaining, is for the
maintenance of beings by maintaining the body. For this body, though
generated by kamma, is sustained by physical food and stands for ten
years or a hundred years up to the end of the life-span. Like what?
Like a child which, though given birth by the mother, is nurtured by
the milk, etc., given to him to drink by the wet-nurse and thus lives
long. Also, as a house is supported by a prop. This too has been said
(untraced): "Great king, just as, when a house is collapsing, they
prop it up with other timber, and that house, being propped up by
other timber, does not collapse, so too this body is supported by
nutriment, persists in dependence upon nutriment."
Thus physical food as nutriment accomplishes the function of
nutriment by sustaining. Accomplishing it thus, physical food as
nutriment becomes a condition for two material continuities, namely,
for that originated by nutriment and that kammically acquired.[28] It
is a condition for the kamma-born materiality by becoming its
preserver. It is a condition for that originated by nutriment by
becoming its producer.
Then contact, by contacting the object which is the basis for
pleasure, etc., is "for the maintenance of beings" by causing the
occurrence of pleasant feeling, etc. Mental volition, accumulating by
way of wholesome and unwholesome kamma, is "for the maintenance of
beings" because it provides the root of existence. Consciousness, by
cognizing, is "for the maintenance of beings" by causing the
occurrence of mentality-materiality.
The Four Dangers
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Now, while these are accomplishing their function of nutriment by
sustaining, etc., four dangers are to be seen: the danger of desire in
the case of physical food as nutriment; the danger of approach in the
case of contact; (the danger) of accumulating in the case of mental
volition; and (the danger) of launching [into a new existence here or
there by way of taking rebirth-linking] in the case of consciousness.
What are the reasons (for this)? Because, having aroused desire for
physical food, beings face cold, etc., to undertake such work as
checking, accounting, etc., and incur not a little suffering. And some
who have gone forth in this dispensation seek nutriment through such
improper means as the practice of medicine, etc., and they are to be
censured here and now, and hereafter they become "recluse ghosts" in
the manner described thus in the Lakkhana Samyutta: "And his outer
robe was burning, blazing," etc.[29] For this reason, desire itself is
to be understood as the danger in physical food as nutriment.
Those who approach contact, who find gratification in contact,
commit crimes in respect of others' guarded and protected belongings,
such as their wives, etc. When the owners of the goods catch them with
their belongings, they cut them into pieces or throw them onto a
rubbish heap, or hand them over to the king; and then the king has
various tortures inflicted upon them. And with the breakup of the
body, after death, a bad destination is to be expected for them. Thus
this entire danger -- that pertaining to the here and now and that
pertaining to the afterlife -- has come about rooted in contact. For
this reason, approach is to be understood as the danger in the case of
the nutriment contact.
The entire danger in the three realms of existence has come about
by the accumulation of wholesome and unwholesome kamma and is rooted
in that (accumulation). For this reason, accumulation is to be
understood as the danger in the nutriment mental volition.
And in whatever place rebirth-linking consciousness launches (the
new existence), in that same place it is reborn by seizing the
rebirth-linking mentality-materiality. When it is produced, all
dangers are produced, for they are all rooted in it. For this reason,
launching is to be understood as the danger in the nutriment
consciousness.
The Four Similes
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
In regard to these nutriments with their dangers, for the sake of
eliminating desire for the nutriment physical food, the Fully
Enlightened One taught the simile of son's flesh in the passage
beginning thus: "Suppose, bhikkhus, a couple, a man and his wife, ..."
For the sake of eliminating desire for the nutriment contact, he
taught the simile of the flayed cow in the passage beginning thus:
"Suppose, bhikkhus, there was a flayed cow ..." For the sake of
eliminating desire for the nutriment mental volition, he taught the
simile of the charcoal pit in the passage beginning thus: "Suppose,
bhikkhus, there was a charcoal pit ..." And for the sake of
eliminating desire for the nutriment consciousness, he taught the
simile of the man struck with three hundred spears in the passage
beginning thus: "Suppose, bhikkhus, there was a thief, a crook
..."[30]
Therein, taking the essential meaning, there follows a brief
interpretation of the meaning. A couple, it is said, a man and his
wife, took their son and set out on a desert trail a hundred yojanas
long,[31] with only limited provisions. When they had gone fifty
yojanas their provisions ran out. Exhausted by hunger and thirst, they
sat down in some scanty shade. Then the man said to his wife: "My
dear, for fifty yojanas on all sides there is neither a village nor a
town. Therefore, though a man can do many kinds of work, such as
plowing, guarding cattle, etc., it is not possible for me to do that.
Come, kill me. Eat half of my flesh, and having made the other half
into provisions for the journey, cross out of the desert together with
our son."
The wife said: "Dear husband, though a woman can do many kinds of
work, such as spinning thread, etc., it is not possible for me to do
that. Come, kill me. Eat half of my flesh, and having made the other
half into provisions for the journey, cross out of the desert together
with our son."
Then the man said: "My dear, the death of the mother would mean the
death of two, for a young boy cannot live without his mother. But if
we both live, then we can beget another child again. Come now, let us
kill our child, take his flesh, and cross out of this desert."
Then the mother said to the son: "Dear, go to your father." He
went, but the father said: "For the sake of supporting this child I
incurred much suffering through such work as plowing, guarding cattle,
etc. I cannot kill the boy. You kill your son." Then he said: "Dear,
go to your mother." But the mother said: "Longing for a son I incurred
much suffering by observing the cow-observance, the dog-observance,
praying to the gods, etc., not to speak of bearing him in my womb.[32]
It is not possible for me to kill him." Then she said: "Dear, go to
your father."
The boy died from going back and forth between the father and the
mother. Seeing him dead, they wept, and having taken the flesh as
described above, they departed. Because that flesh of their son was
repulsive to them for nine reasons, it was not eaten for enjoyment nor
for intoxication nor for making (the body) strong and beautiful, but
only for the purpose of crossing out of the desert.
For what nine reasons was it repulsive? Because it was the flesh of
their own offspring, the flesh of a relative, the flesh of a son, the
flesh of a dear son, the flesh of a youngster, raw flesh, not beef,
unsalted, unspiced. Therefore the bhikkhu who sees the nutriment
physical food thus, as similar to son's flesh, eliminates the desire
for it.[33]
This, in the first place, is the interpretation of the meaning of
the simile of son's flesh.
Then, as regards the simile of the flayed cow: If a cow were
stripped of its skin from the neck to the hooves and then set free,
whatever it would rest upon would become a basis of pain for it, since
it would be bitten by the small creatures living there.[34] So too,
whatever physical basis or object contact stands upon as its support
becomes a basis for the felt pain originating from that basis or
object.[35] Therefore a bhikkhu who sees the nutriment contact thus,
as similar to a flayed cow, eliminates the desire for it. This is the
interpretation of the meaning of the simile of the flayed cow.
Then, as regards the simile of the charcoal pit:[36] The three
realms of being are like a charcoal pit in the sense of a great
burning heat (lit., a great fever). Like the two men who grab hold (of
a weaker man) by both his arms and drag him towards it, is mental
volition in the sense that it drags one towards the realms of being.
Therefore a bhikkhu who sees the nutriment mental volition thus, as
similar to a charcoal pit, eliminates the desire for it. This is the
interpretation of the meaning of the simile of the charcoal pit.
Then, as regards the simile of the man struck with three hundred
spears:[37] The hundred spears that strike the man in the morning
make a hundred wound openings in his body, and without remaining
inside they pierce through and fall on the other side; and so with the
other two hundred spears as well. Thus his whole body is cut again and
again by the spears which come without piercing him in a place where
another has already struck. There is no measuring the pain arisen in
him from even one of the wound openings, not to speak of three hundred
wound openings.
Therein, the time of the generation of the rebirth-linking
consciousness is like the time of being struck by a spear. The
production of the aggregates is like the production of the wound
openings. The arising of the various kinds of suffering rooted in the
round (of existence) once the aggregates have been born is like the
arising of suffering on account of the wound openings.
Another method of interpretation (is as follows): The
rebirth-linking consciousness is like the thief. His
mentality-materiality conditioned by consciousness is like the wound
openings created by the striking of the spears. The arising of the
various kinds of suffering by way of the thirty-two types of torture
and the eighty-nine types of diseases in regard to consciousness
conditioned by mentality-materiality -- this should be regarded as
like the arising of severe pain for that man conditioned by the wound
openings.
Therefore a bhikkhu who sees the nutriment consciousness thus, as
similar to one struck by three hundred spears, eliminates the desire
for it. This is the interpretation of the meaning of the simile of the
man struck by three hundred spears.
Full Understanding
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Thus by eliminating desire in regard to these nutriments, he also
fully understands these four nutriments. When these have been fully
understood, the entire basis (for them) has also been fully
understood. For this has been said by the Blessed One
(S.12:63/ii,99-100):
Bhikkhus, when the nutriment physical food has been fully
understood, lust for the five cords of sensual pleasure has
been fully understood. When lust for the five cords of sensual
pleasure has been fully understood, there exists no more any
fetter bound by which the noble disciple might come back to
this world.
Bhikkhus, when the nutriment contact has been fully understood,
the three feelings have been fully understood. When the three
feelings have been fully understood, there is nothing further
for the noble disciple to do, I say.
Bhikkhus, when the nutriment mental volition has been fully
understood, the three kinds of craving have been fully
understood. When the three kinds of craving have been fully
understood, there is nothing further for the noble disciple to
do, I say.
Bhikkhus, when the nutriment consciousness has been fully
understood, mentality-materiality has been fully understood.
When mentality-materiality has been fully understood, there is
nothing further for the noble disciple to do, I say.
The Arising and Cessation of Nutriment
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
With the arising of craving there is the arising of nutriment
(//tanhasamudaya aharasamudayo//): This is the meaning: "With the
arising of craving in the previous (existence) the arising of the
nutriments occurs at rebirth-linking (in this existence)." How?
Because at the moment of rebirth-linking there is the nutritive
essence produced among the thirty types of materiality that have
arisen by way of triple continuity.[38] This is the kammically
acquired physical food as nutriment produced by craving as its
condition. But the contact and volition associated with the
rebirth-linking consciousness, and that mind or consciousness itself
-- these are the kammically acquired nutriments of contact, mental
volition and consciousness produced by craving as their condition.
Thus, in the first place, the arising of the nutriments at
rebirth-linking should be understood as occurring with the arising of
craving in the previous existence.
But because the nutriments that are kammically acquired and those
that are not kammically acquired have been discussed here combined,
(the principle of) the arising of nutriment with the arising of
craving should be understood to apply also to those that are not
kammically acquired. For there is nutritive essence in the kinds of
materiality that are aroused by the eight types of consciousness
accompanied by greed;[39] this is the nutriment physical food that is
not kammically acquired yet is produced by conascent craving as its
condition. But the contact and volition associated with the
consciousness accompanied by greed, and that mind or consciousness
itself -- these are the nutriments of contact, mental volition and
consciousness that are not kammically acquired yet are produced by
craving as their condition.
With the cessation of craving there is cessation of nutriment
(//tanhanirodha aharanirodho//): By this there is set forth the
cessation of nutriment by the cessation of the craving that had become
the condition for both nutriment that is kammically acquired and that
which is not kammically acquired. The rest (should be understood) by
the method stated, but there is this difference. Here the four truths
are stated directly, and as here, so in all the following sections.
Therefore one who is unconfused in mind can deduce the truths
throughout in what follows.[40]
12. And in all the following sections the delimiting phrase In that
way too, friends (//ettavata pi kho avuso//) should be construed
according to the principle that has been expounded. Here, in the first
place, this is the interpretation of it (in the present context). "In
that way too": what is meant is: "the attention and penetration stated
by way of the teaching concerning nutriment." The same method
throughout.
The Four Noble Truths
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
14. Now, delighting and rejoicing in the Elder's words, after saying
as before "Good, friend," the bhikkhus asked a further question, and
the Elder answered them by another exposition. This method is found in
all the following sections. Therefore, from here onwards, we shall
explain the meaning only of the particular exposition he states in
reply, without touching upon such words (as are already explained).
15. In the brief exposition of this teaching, in the phrase (he)
understands suffering (//dukkham pajanati//), "suffering" is the truth
of suffering. But regarding the detailed exposition, whatever needs to
be said has all been said already in the Visuddhimagga in the
Description of the Truths (XVI,13-104).
Aging and Death
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
21. From here onwards the teaching is given by way of dependent
arising (//paticca samuppada//).
22. Therein, in the section on aging and death, firstly as to the
term their (//tesam tesam//) -- this should be understood as a
collective designation in brief for the many kinds of beings. For if
one were to state (the aging of individuals such as) the aging of
Devadatta, the aging of Somadatta, etc., one would never come to an
end of beings. But there is no being not included by this term
"their."[41] Therefore it was said above: "This should be understood
as a collective designation in brief for the many kinds of beings."
In the various (//tamhi tamhi//): This is a collective designation
for the many (different) orders by way of destiny and birth. Orders of
beings (//sattanikaye//): an indication of the nature of what is
designated by the collective designation.
Aging, old age (//jara jiranata//), etc.: As regards these, "aging"
is the description of the nature; "old age" is the description of the
aspect; "brokenness," etc., are descriptions of the function with
respect to the passage of time; and the last two terms are
descriptions of the normal (process). For this is indicated as to
nature by this term aging (//jara//); hence this is a description of
its nature. It is indicated as to aspect by this term old age
(//jiranata//); hence this is a description of its aspect. Brokenness
(//khandicca//): by this it is indicated as to the function of causing
the broken state of teeth and nails on account of the passage of time.
Grayness (//palicca//): by this it is indicated as to the function of
causing the head hairs and body hairs to turn gray. Wrinkling
(//valittacata//): by this it is indicated as to the wrinkled state of
the skin after the withering of the flesh. Hence the three terms
beginning with brokenness are descriptions of function with respect to
the passage of time. By these evident aging is shown, which becomes
evident by the showing of these alterations. For just as the course
taken by water or wind or fire is evident from the damaged and broken
state, or the burnt state, of the grass and trees, etc., and yet the
course that has been taken is not the water, etc., itself, so too the
course taken by aging is evident through brokenness of teeth, etc.,
and it is apprehended by opening the eyes, but the brokenness, etc.,
themselves are not aging, nor is aging cognizable by the eye.
Decline of life, weakness of faculties (//ayuno samhani indriyanam
paripako//): By these terms it is indicated by means of the normal
(process) known as the exhaustion of the life-span and the weakening
of the eye faculty, etc., that has become manifest with the passage of
time. Hence these last two are to be understood as descriptions of its
normal (process).
Therein, because the life-span of one who has reached aging is
dwindling, aging is called "decline of life" as a metaphor (for the
cause stated in terms) of its effect. And because the eye faculty,
etc. -- which at the time of youth were quite clear and could easily
grasp even subtle objects -- become deficient, obscure, unable to
grasp even gross objects when one has reached old age, therefore it is
called "weakness of faculties" also as a metaphor (for the cause
stated in terms) of its effect.
This aging, thus described, is all of two kinds, evident and
concealed. Therein, the aging of material phenomena, shown by
brokenness, etc., is called evident aging (//pakatajara//). But in the
case of immaterial phenomena, because their alteration in such a way
is not visible, their aging is called concealed aging
(//paticchannajara//). Therein, the brokenness that is seen is simply
color (//vanna//) because of the ease of comprehending such things as
the teeth, etc. Having seen this with the eye and reflected on it with
the mind door, one knows aging thus: "These teeth have been afflicted
by aging," just as one knows the existence of water below when one has
noticed the heads of cows, etc., bound to the place where the water is
located.
Again, aging is twofold thus: as continuous and as discrete.
Therein, continuous aging (//avicijara//) is the aging of such things
as gems, gold, silver, coral, the sun and moon, etc.; it is so called
because of the difficulty of perceiving in such things distinct
changes in color, etc., at regular intervals, as we can in the case of
living beings passing through the decade of childhood, etc., and in
the case of vegetation (lit. non-breathing things) such as flowers,
fruits, buds, etc. The meaning is: aging that progresses without
interval. Discrete aging (//savicijara//) is the aging of the things
other than those, i.e. of the aforesaid things (living beings and
vegetation); it is so called because it is easy to perceive in them
distinct changes in color, etc., at regular intervals. So it should be
understood.
Following this (in the definition of death) the term their (//tesam
tesam//) should be understood by the method stated above (in the
definition of aging). Then, in the expression passing, passing away,
etc., passing (//cuti//) is said by way of what has the nature to pass
away; this is a collective designation (applying) to one-, four-, and
five-aggregate (existence). Passing away (//cavanata//) is the
indication of the characteristic by a word expressing the abstract
state. Dissolution (//bheda//) is an indication of the occurrence of
the breaking up of the aggregates (at the time) of passing.
Disappearance (//antaradhana//) is an indication of the absence of any
manner of persistence of the aggregates (at the time) of passing, as
they are broken like a broken pot.
Dying (//maccu marana//): death which is called dying. By this he
rejects the idea of death as complete annihilation. Completion of time
(//kalakiriya//): time is the destroyer, and this (completion of time)
is its activity. By this he explains death in conventional
terminology.
Now, to explain death in (terms valid in) the ultimate sense, he
next says the dissolution of the aggregates (//khandhanam bhedo//),
etc.[42] For in the ultimate sense it is only the aggregates that
break up; it is not any so called being that dies. But when the
aggregates are breaking up convention says "a being is dying," and
when they have broken up convention says "(he is) dead."
Here the dissolution of the aggregates is said by way of four- [and
five-] constituent being; the laying down of the body (//kalevarassa
nikkhepo//) by way of one-constituent being.[43] Or alternatively, the
dissolution of the aggregates is said by way of four-constituent
being; the laying down of the body should be understood by way of the
other two (i.e. one- and five-constituent being). Why? Because of the
existence of the body, that is, the material body, in those two realms
of being. Or else, because in the realm of the Four Great Kings, etc.,
the aggregates simply break up and they do not lay anything down, the
dissolution of the aggregates is said with reference to them.[44] The
laying down of the body occurs among human beings, etc. And here,
because it is the cause for the laying down of the body, death is
called the laying down of the body. Thus the meaning should be
understood.
So this aging and this death are what is called aging and death
(//iti ayan ca jara idan ca maranam idam vuccat'avuso jaramaranam//):
this is spoken of as "aging and death" by combining the two into one.
Birth
~~~~~
26. In the section on birth, in regard to the phrase birth, ... their
coming to birth, etc., birth (//jati//) is in the sense of being born;
this is stated with reference to those (conceived) with incomplete
sense bases. Coming to birth (//sanjati//) is in the sense of the act
of coming to birth; this is stated with reference to those (conceived)
with already complete sense bases. Precipitation (or descent,
//okkanti//) is in the sense of being precipitated (descending). This
is stated with reference to those born from the egg and from the womb,
for they take rebirth-linking as though descending and entering the
egg shell or the placenta. Generation (//abhinibbatti//) is in the
sense of being generated. This is stated with reference to those born
from moisture or those of spontaneous birth, for these are generated
as soon as they become manifest.
Now comes the exposition in (terms valid in) the ultimate sense.
Manifestation (//patubhava//) is the arising. Of the aggregates
(//khandhanam//) is to be understood as (the arising) of one aggregate
in the one-constituent realm of being, of four aggregates in
four-constituent realms, and of five aggregates in five-constituent
realms. Obtaining (//patilabha//) is the manifestation in continuity.
The bases (//ayatananam//) should be understood as comprising the
sense bases arising (at conception) in this or that realm. For when
the sense bases become manifest, then they are said to be obtained.
This is called birth (//ayam vuccat'avuso jati//): by this phrase
he comes to the conclusion on birth taught in both conventional terms
and in the ultimate sense.
With the arising of being (//bhavasamudaya//): but here one should
understand kammically active being as the condition for birth. The
rest by the method stated.
Being
~~~~~
30. In the section on being, sense-sphere being (//kamabhava//) is
kammically active being and resultant being. Therein, kammically
active being (//kammabhava//) is kamma itself that leads to
sense-sphere being. For that is called "being" as a designation of the
cause in terms of its effect, because it is the cause for resultant
being, as when it is said: "The arising of Buddhas is bliss" and "The
accumulation of evil is painful" (Dhp. 194, 117). Resultant being
(//upapattibhava//) is the group of kammically acquired aggregates
produced by that kamma. For that is called "being" because it exists
there. Thus this kamma and this result are both spoken of conjointly
as "sense-sphere being." The same method applies to fine-material
being and immaterial being (//ruparupabhava//).
With the arising of clinging (//upadanasamudaya//): But here
clinging is a condition for wholesome kammically active being only by
way of decisive support; it is a condition for unwholesome kammically
active being by way of both decisive support and conascence.[45] For
all resultant being it is a condition only by way of decisive support.
The rest by the method stated.
Clinging
~~~~~~~~
34. In the section on clinging, in regard to the phrase "clinging to
sense pleasures," etc., clinging to sense pleasures (//kamupadana//)
is analyzed thus: by this one clings to the object of sensual
pleasure, or this itself clings to it. Or alternatively: that is a
sensual pleasure and it is clinging, thus it is clinging to sensual
pleasure. It is firm grasping (//dalhagahana//) that is called
clinging. For here the prefix //upa// has the sense of firmness. This
is a designation for the lust for the five cords of sensual pleasure.
This is the brief account here. The detailed account should be
understood by the method stated thus: "Therein, what is clinging to
sensual pleasures? The sensual desire in regard to sensual pleasures,"
etc. (Dhs. Section 1214).
So too, that is a view and clinging, thus it is clinging to views
(//ditthupadana//). Or alternatively: it clings to a view, or by this
they cling to a view. For the subsequent view clings to the previous
view and thereby they cling to the view. As it is said: "Self and the
world are eternal; only this is true, anything else is false," etc.
(M.102/ii, 233). This is a designation for the whole field of (wrong)
views except clinging to rituals and observances and clinging to a
doctrine of self.[46] This is the brief account here. The detailed
account should be understood by the method stated thus: "Therein, what
is clinging to views? There is nothing given," etc. (Dhs. Section
1215).
So too, by this they cling to rituals and observances, or this
itself clings to them, or that is a ritual and observance and
clinging, thus it is clinging to rituals and observances
(//silabbatupadana//). For when one adheres to the idea that the cow
ritual or cow observance brings purification, that itself is a
clinging.[47] This is the brief account here. The detailed account
should be understood by the method stated thus: "Therein, what is
clinging to rituals and observances? (The idea) of recluses and
brahmins outside here (i.e. outside the Buddha's dispensation) that
purity (is achieved) by rules," etc. (Dhs. Section 1216).
Now they assert in terms of this, thus it is a doctrine. By this
they cling, thus it is clinging. What do they assert? Or what do they
cling to? Self. The clinging to a doctrine about a self is the
clinging to a doctrine of self (//attavadupadana//). Or alternatively:
by this a mere doctrine of self is clung to as self, thus it is
clinging to a doctrine of self. This is a designation for personality
view with its twenty cases. This is the brief account here. The
detailed account should be understood by the method stated thus:
"Therein, what is clinging to a doctrine of self? Here, the
uninstructed worldling who has no regard for noble ones," etc. (Dhs.
Section 1217).
With the arising of craving (//tanhasamudaya//): here, craving is a
condition for clinging to sensual pleasures either by way of decisive
support or by way of proximity, contiguity, absence, disappearance and
repetition.[48] But for the rest (it is a condition) by way of
conascence, etc., too. The rest by the method stated.
Craving
~~~~~~~
38. In the section on craving, craving for forms ... craving for
mind-objects (//rupatanha ... dhammatanha//): these are names for the
kinds of craving which occur in the course of a javana cognitive
process (//javanavithi//) in the eye door, etc. Like a name derived
from the father, such as Setthiputta ("merchant's son") or
Brahmanaputta ("brahmin's son"), their names are derived from the
object, which is similar to the father [as being the cause (//hetu//)
of it only, not as is the case with "eye-contact," which is like a
name derived from the mother in that (the eye like the mother in
relation to her son) is a cause by its nature as a physical support
(//nissayabhava//)].
And here, craving for forms is craving that has forms as its
object, craving in regard to forms. When this occurs by finding
gratification in visible forms through its nature as sensual lust, it
is craving for sensual pleasure (//kamatanha//). When it occurs by
finding gratification in visible forms, thinking "Form is permanent,
lasting, eternal," through its nature as lust accompanied by the
eternalist view, then it is craving for being (//bhavatanha//). When
it occurs by finding gratification in visible form, thinking "Form is
annihilated, destroyed, and does not exist after death," through its
nature as lust accompanied by the annihilationist view, then it is
craving for non-being (//vibhavatanha//). Thus it is threefold. And as
craving for form, so too craving for sound, etc., (are each threefold
too). Thus there are eighteen modes of craving. These eighteen in
respect of internal visible form, etc., and in respect of external
visible form, etc., come to thirty-six. So thirty-six in the past,
thirty-six in the future, and thirty-six at present make up a hundred
and eight.
Or there are eighteen based on internal form, etc., thus: "On
account of the internal there is (the notion) 'I am,' there is (the
notion) 'I am such and such,' " and so on; and there are eighteen
based on external form, etc., thus: "On account of the external there
is (the notion) 'I am,' there is (the notion) 'I am such and such,' "
and so on. Thus there are thirty-six. So thirty-six in the past,
thirty-six in the future, and thirty-six at present make up thus the
hundred and eight modes of craving (//tanhavicaritani//; see A.
4:199/ii, 212).
Again, when a classification is made, they reduce to only six
classes of craving -- in terms of their objects, forms and the rest --
and to only three types of craving -- craving for sensual pleasure and
the rest. Thus:
Craving should be known by the wise
Through description and when described
In detail; it (should be known) again
Through classification of the detail.
With the arising of feeling there is the arising of craving
(//vedanasamudaya tanhasamudayo//): But here the word "feeling" is
intended as resultant feeling.[49] How is that the condition for
craving in respect of the six sense doors? Because of its ability to
produce gratification. For it is through the gratification in pleasant
feeling that beings become enamored of that feeling, and after
arousing craving for feeling and being seized by lust for feeling,
they long only for a desirable visible form in the eye door. And on
getting it, they find gratification in it, and they honor painters,
etc., who provide such objects. Likewise, they long only for a
desirable sound, etc., in the ear door, etc. And on getting it, they
find gratification in it, and they honor musicians, perfume makers,
cooks, spinners and the teachers of the various crafts. Like what?
Like those who, being enamored of a child, out of love for the child
honor the wet-nurse and give her suitable ghee, milk, etc., to eat and
drink. The rest by the method stated.
Feeling
~~~~~~~
42. In the section on feeling, classes of feeling (//vedanakaya//)
means groups of feeling. Feeling born of eye-contact ... feeling born
of mind-contact (//cakkhusamphassaja vedana ... manosamphassaja
vedana//): because of what has come down in the Vibhanga thus: "There
is feeling born of eye-contact that is wholesome, that is unwholesome,
that is indeterminate" (Vibh. 15), the wholesome, unwholesome and
indeterminate feelings that occur in the eye door, etc., are named
after the physical base, which is similar to a mother, just as some
are named after their mother, such as "Sariputta (Lady Sari's son),"
"Mantaniputta (Lady Mantani's son)," etc.
But the word meaning here is this: feeling born of eye-contact
(//cakkhusamphassaja vedana//) is feeling that is born with
eye-contact as the cause. The same method throughout. This, in the
first place, is the all-inclusive explanation. But by way of
resultant, in the eye-door there are two eye-consciousnesses, two mind
elements, three mind-consciousness elements; feeling should be
understood as what is associated with these.[50] This method also
applies in the ear door, etc. In the mind door, (feeling) is
associated only with the mind-consciousness elements.
With the arising of contact (//phassasamudaya//): But here the
arising in the five doors of the feelings that have the five physical
bases (as their support) occurs with the arising of the conascent
eye-contact. For the rest, eye-contact, etc., are conditions by way of
decisive support. In the mind door, the arising of feelings (on the
occasion) of registration and of the doorless feelings (on the
occasions) of rebirth-linking, life-continuum and death occurs with
the arising of the conascent mind-contact.[51] The rest by the method
stated.
Contact
~~~~~~~
46. In the section on contact, eye-contact (//cakkhusamphassa//) is
contact in the eye. The same method throughout. Eye-contact ...
body-contact (//cakkhusamphasso ... kayasamphasso//): up to this point
ten kinds of contact have been stated, namely, the wholesome- and
unwholesome-resultants having the five physical bases (as their
support). Mind-contact (//manosamphassa//): by this (he indicates) the
remaining twenty-two kinds of contact associated with the mundane
resultant (types of consciousness).[52]
With the arising of the sixfold base (//salayatanasamudaya//): The
arising of this sixfold contact should be understood to occur by way
of the arising of the six bases beginning with the eye-base. The rest
by the method stated.
The Sixfold Base
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
50. In the section on the sixfold base, as regards the eye-base
(//cakkhayatana//), etc., whatever should be said has all been said
already in the Visuddhimagga in the Description of the Aggregates and
in the Description of the Bases (XIV, 37-52; XV, 1-16).
With the arising of mentality-materiality (//namarupasamudaya//):
But here the arising of the sixfold base should be understood to occur
from the arising of mentality-materiality according to the method
stated in the Visuddhimagga in the Description of Dependent Arising,
as to which mentality, which materiality, and which
mentality-materiality are a condition for which base (XVII, 206-219).
Mentality-Materiality
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
54. In the section on mentality-materiality, mentality (//nama//) has
the characteristic of bending (//namana//); materiality (//rupa//) has
the characteristic of being molested (//ruppana//).[53] In the
detailed section, however, feeling (//vedana//) is to be understood as
the feeling aggregate, perception (//sanna//) as the perception
aggregate, and volition, contact and attention (//cetana phasso
manasikaro//) as the formations aggregate. While it is certainly the
case that other states are included in the formations aggregate, still
these three are found in all classes of consciousness, even the
weakest. That is why the formations aggregate is here pointed out only
by means of these three.
The four great elements (//cattari mahabhutani//): this is a
designation for the four -- earth, water, fire and air. The reason why
these are called "great elements," and other determinations concerning
them, are all stated in the Visuddhimagga in the Description of the
Materiality Aggregate.[54]
Derived from the four great elements (//catunnan ca mahabhutanam
upadaya//): derived from (//upadaya//) = having clung to
(//upadayitva//); "having grasped" is the meaning. Some also say
"depending upon" (//nissaya//). And here the reading is completed by
adding the word "existing" (//vattamanam//). The Pali uses the
genitive (in the term for the elements) in the sense of a group. Hence
the meaning here should be understood thus: the materiality that
exists derived from the group of the four great elements.
Thus materiality taken altogether is to be understood as consisting
of all the following: the four great elements beginning with the earth
element, and the materiality that exists derived from the four great
elements, stated in the canonical Abhidhamma to be of twenty-three
kinds by analysis into the eye-base, etc.[55]
With the arising of consciousness (//vinnanasamudaya//): But here
the arising of mentality-materiality should be understood to occur
with the arising of consciousness according to the method stated in
the Visuddhimagga in the Description of Dependent Arising, as to which
consciousness is a condition for which mentality, for which
materiality, and for which mentality-materiality (XVII, 186-202). The
rest by the method stated.
Consciousness
~~~~~~~~~~~~~
58. In the section on consciousness, eye-consciousness
(//cakkhuvinnana//) is consciousness in the eye or consciousness born
from the eye. So also with ear-, nose-, tongue- and
body-consciousness. But with the other one, i.e. mind-consciousness
(//manovinnana//), mind itself is consciousness. This is a designation
for the resultant consciousness of the three (mundane) planes of
existence except for the two groups of fivefold consciousness.[56]
With the arising of formations (//sankharasamudaya//): But here the
arising of consciousness should be understood to occur with the
arising of formations according to the method stated in the
Visuddhimagga, as to which formation is a condition for which
consciousness (XVII, 175-185).
Formations
~~~~~~~~~~
62. In the section on formations, a formation (//sankhara//) has the
characteristic of forming (//abhisankharanalakkhana//). But in the
detailed section, the bodily formation (//kayasankhara//) is a
formation that proceeds from the body. This is a designation for the
twenty kinds of bodily volition -- the eight sense-sphere wholesome
and twelve unwholesome -- that occur by way of activation in the
bodily door.[57] The verbal formation (//vacisankhara//) is a
formation that proceeds from speech. This is a designation for the
(same) twenty kinds of verbal volition that occur by way of breaking
into speech in the door of speech. The mental formation
(//cittasankhara//) is a formation that proceeds from the mind. This
is a designation for the twenty-nine kinds of mental volition -- the
mundane wholesome and unwholesome -- that occur in one sitting alone
in thought, and which do not cause activation of the bodily and verbal
doors.[58]
With the arising of ignorance (//avijjasamudaya//): But here
ignorance should be understood as a condition for the wholesome by way
of decisive support and for the unwholesome by way of conascence as
well. The rest by the method stated.
Ignorance
~~~~~~~~~
66. In the section on ignorance, not knowing about suffering (//dukkhe
annanam//) means not knowing about the truth of suffering. This is a
designation for delusion (//moha//). The same method with respect to
"not knowing about the origin of suffering," and so on.
Herein, not knowing about suffering should be understood in four
ways: as to containment (//antogadhato//), as to physical basis
(//vatthuto//), as to object (//arammanato//), and as to concealment
(//paticchadanato//). Thus, because of being included in the truth of
suffering, it ("not knowing" or ignorance) is contained in suffering;
and the truth of suffering is its physical basis by being its support
condition; and (the truth of suffering) is its object by being its
object condition; and it conceals the truth of suffering by preventing
the penetration of its real characteristic and by not allowing
knowledge to occur in regard to it.
Not knowing about the origin (of suffering) should be understood in
three ways: as to physical basis, as to object, and as to concealment.
And not knowing about cessation and the way (to cessation) should be
understood in one way only: as to concealment. For non-knowledge only
conceals cessation and the way by preventing the penetration of their
real characteristics and by not allowing knowledge to occur in regard
to them. But it is not contained in them because it is not included in
this pair of truths. And these two truths are not its physical basis
because they are not conascent. Nor are they its object because of its
non-occurrence on account of them. For the last pair of truths are
difficult to see because of their profundity, and non-knowledge, which
is blind, does not occur there. But the first (pair of truths) is
profound in the sense of opposition because of the difficulty in
seeing the characteristic of their intrinsic nature; it occurs there
by way of obsession by the perversions.
Furthermore: About suffering (//dukkhe//): to this extent ignorance
is indicated as to inclusion, as to physical basis, as to object, and
as to function. About the origin of suffering (//dukkhasamudaye//): to
this extent, as to basis, as to object, and as to function. About the
cessation of suffering (//dukkhanirodhe//) and about the way leading
to the cessation of suffering (//dukkhanirodhagaminiya patipadaya//):
to this extent, as to function. But without distinction, (in each
instance) ignorance is described in terms of its intrinsic nature by
the phrase "not knowing."
With the arising of the taints (//asavasamudaya//): But here the
taint of sensual desire and the taint of being are conditions for
ignorance by way of conascence, etc.; the taint of ignorance, only by
way of decisive support. And here the ignorance that had arisen
previously should be understood as the taint of ignorance. That is a
decisive support condition for the ignorance that arises subsequently.
The rest by the method stated.
The Taints
~~~~~~~~~~
70. In the section on the taints, with the arising of ignorance
(//avijjasamudaya//): Here ignorance is a condition for the taint of
sensual desire and the taint of being by way of decisive support,
etc.; (it is a condition) for the taint of ignorance only by way of
decisive support. And here the ignorance that arises subsequently
should be understood as the taint of ignorance. The previously arisen
ignorance itself becomes a decisive support condition for the
subsequently arisen taint of ignorance. The rest by the aforesaid
method.
This section is stated by way of showing the condition for the
ignorance which heads the factors of dependent arising. Stated thus,
the undiscoverability (//anamataggata//) of any beginning of samsara
is established. How? Because with the arising of the taints there is
the arising of ignorance, and with the arising of ignorance there is
the arising of the taints. Thus the taints are a condition for
ignorance, and ignorance is a condition for the taints. Having shown
this, (it follows that) no first point of ignorance is manifest, and
because none is manifest the undiscoverability of any beginning of
samsara is proven.[59]
Conclusion
~~~~~~~~~~
Thus in all this sutta sixteen sections have been stated: the section
on the courses of kamma, the section on nutriment, the section on
suffering, and the sections on aging and death, birth, being,
clinging, craving, feeling, contact, the sixfold base,
mentality-materiality, consciousness, formations, ignorance and the
taints.
As to these, in each individual section there is a twofold analysis
-- in brief and in detail -- amounting to thirty-two cases. Thus in
this sutta, in these thirty-two cases, the Four (Noble) Truths are
expounded. Among these, in the sixteen cases stated in detail,
Arahantship is expounded.
But according to the opinion of the Elder, the four truths and the
four paths are expounded in the thirty-two cases.[60] Thus in the
entire Word of the Buddha comprised in the five great Nikayas, there
is no sutta except for this Discourse on Right View where the Four
(Noble) Truths are explained thirty-two times and where Arahantship is
explained thirty-two times.
That is what the Venerable Sariputta said (//idam avoc'ayasma
Sariputto//): The Venerable Sariputta spoke this Discourse on Right
View, having adorned it with sixty-four divisions -- thirty-two
expositions of the four truths and thirty-two expositions of
Arahantship. The bhikkhus were satisfied and delighted in the
Venerable Sariputta's words.
In the Papancasudani, the Commentary to the Majjhima Nikaya, the
Explanation of the Discourse on Right View is concluded.
* * * * * * * *
NOTES
1. The term sammaditthi is ordinarily used to mean simply a state, the
path factor of right view. Here, however, the Pali expression is
used as a masculine noun to mean, in the first instance, a person
possessing right view; hence it has been rendered "one of right
view." The commentator contrasts this unusual usage of the term
with the more common usage where sammaditthi signifies a state
(//dhamma//), that is, the path factor rather than the individual
endowed with that state.
2. The knowledge of kamma as one's own (//kammassakatanana//) is often
expressed in the Suttas thus: "I am the owner of my kamma, the heir
of my kamma, I spring from my kamma, I am bound to my kamma, I have
kamma as my refuge. Whatever kamma I perform, good or bad, of that
I am the heir." In short, it is knowledge of the moral efficacy of
action, of the fact that one's willed deeds fashion one's destiny.
Knowledge in conformity with the truths (//saccanulomikanana//) is
conceptual knowledge of the Four Noble Truths, accompanied by
understanding and acceptance of them.
3. The understanding or wisdom (//panna//) connected with the paths
and fruits is supramundane because its object is the supramundane
dhamma, Nibbana, and because it leads to the overcoming of the
world.
4. A disciple in higher training (//sekha//) is one at any of the
three lower levels of sanctity -- a stream-enterer, once-returner,
or non-returner -- or one who has reached their respective paths.
His right view is said to be fixed in destiny (//niyata//) because
it necessarily leads to final liberation.
5. The "one beyond training" (//asekha//) is the Arahant, so called
because he has completed the threefold training in virtue,
concentration and wisdom.
6. The ninefold supramundane Dhamma: the four paths, the four
fruitions, and Nibbana.
7. The interpretation of "the bhikkhus" and "the Elder" is offered by
Sub. Cy., which also presents an alternative interpretation, based
on the commentary to the Vatthupama Sutta (M.7) according to which
the bhikkhus are the pupils of the Elder Mahasangharakkhita and
"the Elder" is the Elder Mahasangharakkhita.
8. See commentary to the third parajika offence.
9. See commentary to the second parajika offence.
10. The meaning of several of these terms, obscure in the original
Pali, has been elaborated with the aid of the Sub. Cy.
11. Consent (//adhivasana//) is included to cover the case where one
of the partners is initially an unwilling victim of another's
assault, but during the course of union consents to the act and
thereby becomes a participant.
12. These are references to the two great classics of Hindu India, the
Mahabharata and the Ramayana.
13. Wrong views of fixed destiny (//niyata micchaditthi//) are views
which deny the moral efficacy of action or which tend to undermine
the foundations of morality. For the most common examples, see
D.2/i, 52-56, and M.76/i, 515-18.
14. The chief factor in the first seven courses of kamma is volition;
the other three courses are identical with the mental factors of
greed, hatred and wrong view, which are associated with volition in
the states of consciousness in which they arise.
15. This refers to the Abhidhamma classification of consciousness,
according to which wholesome sense-sphere consciousness is of eight
types, four associated with knowledge, four dissociated from
knowledge. The abstinences, according to the Abhidhamma, occur in
sense-sphere consciousness only one at a time on occasions when one
deliberately abstains from some wrong. In supramundane
consciousness all three abstinences -- right speech, right action
and right livelihood -- occur together simultaneously.
16. Right view is synonymous with the mental factor of wisdom
(//panna//) or non-delusion (//amoha//); it is always accompanied
by the other two wholesome roots, though the latter do not
necessarily occur in conjunction with right view.
17. Literally, or in the strict sense (//nippariyayena//), only
covetousness and greed, being synonyms of craving (//tanha//),
count as the origin of suffering. But in a looser or figurative
manner of exposition (//pariyayena//) all the roots are the truth
of the origin, since as roots of kamma they help to sustain the
round of rebirth and suffering.
18. The guideline of conversion (//avattahara//) is one of the methods
of deduction in the exegetical guide, the Nettippakarana. According
to this guideline, an expositor of a sutta is to extract from a
particular text a standard doctrinal concept belonging to a
dichotomy, and then taking this concept as a basis, he is to show
that the other member of the dichotomy is also implied by the
passage under consideration, and therefore "turns up" when the
first member is mentioned.
19. The path of non-return (//anagamimagga//) is stated because this
path eradicates all sensual lust and aversion.
20. The path of Arahantship is implied by the eradication of conceit
and ignorance and by the arousing of true knowledge.
21. The verb //aharati// normally means "to bring," but here it is
rendered as "nourish" to underscore its connection with //ahara//,
nutriment.
22. On the four //yoni// or modes of generation, see M.12/i, 73.
23. According to the Abhidhamma, the nutriment proper is the material
phenomenon called nutritive essence (//oja//), while the solid food
ingested is the mere "basis" (//vatthu//) of the nutritive essence.
24. The point is that while in conventional terms food substances are
distinguished as gross or subtle, this distinction is made in terms
of the physical base only. The Abhidhamma classifies nutritive
essence as subtle materiality (//sukhumarupa//); it contrasts with
gross materiality (//olarikarupa//), which includes only the five
sense organs and their objects.
25. This is the highest realm among the sense-sphere heavens. Above
this come the Brahma realms, where physical nutriment is
non-existent.
26. This is the simplest kind of material group (//rupakalapa//)
recognized by the Abhidhamma theory of matter. It consists of the
four primary elements, along with color, smell, taste, and
nutritive essence. All the more complex material groups also
contain these eight phenomena as their foundation. Material groups
in a living organism require an input of nutriment in order to
endure in continuity.
27. Conascence condition (//sahajatapaccaya//) is the condition
whereby the conditioning state contributes to the arising or
maintenance of another state, the conditionally arisen state, when
the latter arises simultaneously with itself. Consciousness is a
conascence condition for the three other mental aggregates --
feeling, perception and mental formations -- both at rebirth and
during the course of life. At rebirth it is also a conascence
condition for the "triple continuity," i.e. the three material
decads of body-sensitivity, sexual determination and the
heart-base. Each of these consists of the above-mentioned eight
material units along with physical life and, as the tenth factor,
the material phenomenon after which it is named.
28. Kammically acquired materiality (//upadinnarupa//) is matter that
is born of kamma. It includes the physical sense faculties, the
life faculty, masculinity, femininity, and the coexisting material
phenomena in the same group. Though such types of matter are
produced by kamma rather than by nutriment, they require nutriment
to sustain them in continuity.
29. The Lakkhana Samyutta (S.19/ii, 254-62) describes the torments
experienced by beings in the realm of the petas or "afflicted
spirits."
30. These similes are taken from the Puttamamsa Sutta, the Discourse
on Son's Flesh (S.12:63/ii, 97-100). See Nyanaponika Thera, The
Four Nutriments of Life (BPS Wheel No. 104/105, 1967), pp. 19-40,
for the sutta along with its commentary.
31. A //yojana// is about seven miles.
32. The cow-observance and the dog-observance are forms of
self-mortification which ascetics of the Buddha's time practiced in
the hope of purification; see M.57/i, 387. Apparently, women also
observed them for short periods in the hope they would make them
fertile.
33. The commentary to the Puttamamsa Sutta develops this analogy in
greater detail than the present commentary.
34. The sutta elaborates as follows: If the cow stands, the creatures
in the air attack it; if it leans against a wall, the creatures in
the wall attack it; if it lies down, the creatures in the ground
attack it; if it enters a pool of water, the creatures in the water
attack it.
35. Contact arises from the coming together of an object, a physical
basis or sense faculty (//vatthu//), and the corresponding type of
consciousness.
36. The simile as given in the sutta is this: Two strong men grab hold
of a weaker man by both arms and drag him towards a blazing
charcoal pit. He wriggles and struggles to get free because he
knows that if he is thrown into the pit, he will meet death or
deadly pain.
37. The king's men arrest a thief and bring him before the king. The
king orders him struck with a hundred spears in the morning,
another hundred at noon, and a third hundred in the evening. The
man survives but experiences deadly pain.
38. See note 27.
39. The eight types of consciousness accompanied by greed are
distinguished by the presence or absence of wrong view, by their
accompanying feeling which may be pleasant or neutral, and by
whether they are spontaneous or prompted.
40. The principle of the Four Noble Truths can be discerned in the
format of the exposition: a particular item X, the arising of X,
the cessation of X, and the way to the cessation of X.
41. In Pali the repetition //tesam tesam//, lit. "of them, of them,"
is understood to imply complete inclusiveness. The same applies to
//tamhi tamhi//, "in that, in that," just below.
42. Whereas the previous definitions were framed in conventional
terminology, those valid in the ultimate sense (//paramatthato//)
define their subject solely in terms of "ultimate realities" such
as aggregates and sense bases.
43. The various realms of existence are analyzed as threefold on the
basis of the number of aggregates existing there. One-constituent
being is the non-percipient realm (//asannibhumi//), which includes
only the aggregate of material form. Four-constituent being is the
four immaterial realms, which contain the four mental aggregates
but not the aggregate of material form. Five-constituent being
comprises all other realms, in which all five aggregates are
present.
44. It seems that in the sense-sphere heavens, at death the beings
simply dissipate into thin air, without leaving behind any corpse.
45. Decisive support condition (//upanissayapaccaya//) and conascence
condition (//sahajatapaccaya//) are the two chief conditions among
the twenty-four conditions of the Patthana or Abhidhammic system of
conditional relations. Decisive support holds between a
conditioning state and a conditioned state that it helps to arise
across an interval of time. Conascence condition holds between a
conditioning state and a conditioned state that arise
simultaneously. See also note 27 above.
46. Clinging to rituals and observances and clinging to a doctrine of
self are both types of wrong view, but as they are enumerated as
individual kinds of clinging in their own right, they are not
included under clinging to views.
47. See above, note 32.
48. These are conditional relations that hold between successive
mind-moments in the javana phase of a single cognitive process
(//cittavithi//).
49. Resultant feeling alone is intended here because this is an
exposition of the round of existence, and in the formula of
dependent arising the factors from consciousness through feeling
are classified as the resultant phase of the round.
50. The two eye-consciousness elements are the wholesome-resultant and
the unwholesome-resultant; the two resultant mind elements are the
wholesome-resultant and the unwholesome-resultant receiving
consciousness (//sampaticchanacitta//); the three resultant
mind-consciousness elements are three types of investigating
consciousness (//santiranacitta//).
51. The registration consciousness (//tadarammanacitta//) is a
resultant type of consciousness that occurs through any of the
sense doors. Its function is to register the datum that had been
the object of the preceding javana series. The rebirth,
life-continuum (//bhavanga//) and death consciousnesses are
resultants that are considered to be "doorless" (//advarika//)
because they occur at an inner subliminal level, not through the
intercourse of sense organs and sense objects.
52. This refers to the Abhidhamma classification of thirty-two types
of resultant consciousness, of which twenty-two remain besides the
ten types of sense-consciousness, five resultants of the
unwholesome and five of the wholesome. The details are not
necessary here.
53. These two definitions involve word plays difficult to reproduce in
English. Ven. Nanamoli has a note suggesting, half flippantly,
"minding" for namana and "mattering" for ruppana.
54. In fact the Visuddhimagga discusses the four great elements not in
its chapter on the Description of the Aggregates (Ch. XIV), but in
the chapter on the meditation subject called the definition of the
elements (Ch. XI).
55. Some instances of derived materiality are: the five sense
faculties, color, sound, smell, taste, the life faculty, sexual
determination, nutritive essence, space, etc.
56. The three planes of existence were enumerated in Section 30. Only
resultant consciousness is taken into account here because this is
an exposition of the round.
57. The figures for the types of consciousness again come from the
Abhidhamma. These types of consciousness can come to expression
either through the door of bodily action or the door of speech, or
they can remain within and not gain outer expression.
58. The nine types of volition which do not come to expression by body
or speech are the five volitions of the five fine-material-sphere
jhanas and the four of the four immaterial-sphere jhanas.
59. Elsewhere the Buddha says: "A first point of ignorance cannot be
discovered, of which it can be said: Before that there was no
ignorance and it came to be after that" (A.10:61/v,113). In that
sutta the Buddha cites the five hindrances as the condition for
ignorance, but as these in turn presuppose ignorance, the vicious
cycle is again established.
60. For the identity of the dissenting Elder, see Section 3 and note 7.
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